Surviving the Anthropocene: Urban Climate Resilience and Disaster Management

Edited by Dhaval Desai and Nandan Dawda

© 2025 Observer Research Foundation and Global Policy Journal. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical or photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.

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Citation: Dhaval Desai and Nandan Dawda, eds., Surviving the Anthropocene: Urban Climate Resilience and Disaster Management (New Delhi: ORF and Global Policy Journal, 2025).

Editors’ Note

We are living in the Anthropocene, a geological epoch defined not by natural cycles but by the significant impact of unabashed human activity. The disruptive consequences brought about by this epochal age are most evident in our cities. As hubs of innovation, mobility, and economic growth, cities are shaping the future of the planet. Yet, these spaces are also the theatres of ecological distress, climate-induced hazards, and growing vulnerability.

Surviving the Anthropocene: Urban Climate Resilience and Disaster Management comes at this critical juncture, a moment of promise and paradox. With cities responsible for a staggering 70 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions and bearing the brunt of climate-related disasters, from unprecedented heatwaves to devastating floods, the imperative to fortify urban resilience is undeniable. Nowhere is this need more urgent than in the Global South, where urbanisation is fast outpacing resilience-building.

This compendium brings together scholars, practitioners, and policy experts who interrogate and reimagine the approaches towards urban resilience. Across 10 essays, contributors explore the complex interplay between infrastructure, equity, finance, governance, and justice. Their research spans disciplines and scales, from passive cooling technologies and heat action plans to gender-sensitive disaster governance, to carbon markets for African cities, and inclusive water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) systems in India’s small towns.

A central theme that resonates throughout this volume is the understanding that climate resilience cannot be an afterthought or a mere technical fix. It must be woven into the fabric of how cities evolve, govern, and protect their most vulnerable inhabitants. The essays underscore the importance of leveraging traditional knowledge, decentralised governance, and community empowerment alongside technological innovation and international climate finance. They also caution against the perils of business-as-usual planning, where climate action plans (CAPs) coexist with ecologically damaging urban policies, and advocate for a paradigm shift towards anticipatory, participatory, and just urbanism.

As extreme heat emerges as a defining climate risk across the Asia-Pacific, Madhurima Sarkar-Swaisgood and Aparna Roy set the tone for the volume by advocating for a fundamental shift in how cities plan for resilience. They argue that conventional disaster frameworks often overlook the slow onset of heat, leading to cumulative impacts, especially on vulnerable communities. Their essay calls for a paradigm shift in recognising heat as a systemic urban risk, necessitating integrated governance, equity-driven planning, and thermally sensitive urban design. Digital tools, such as the UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific’s Risk and Resilience Portal, offer a glimpse into data-driven, anticipatory approaches, including artificial intelligence-powered forecasting and dynamic heat mapping.

Sayli Mankikar and Shinjini Saha spotlight the need for community-led, multi-level climate governance as global efforts to meet the Sustainable Development Goals and Paris Climate Agreement goals have fallen woefully short. Brazil’s forthcoming COP30 presidency and its ‘global mutirão’ initiative underscore a shift towards decentralised, participatory models. Although cities have gained recognition as key climate actors, starting from COP15 and including COP28’s Coalition for High Ambition Multi-level Partnerships initiative, they remain constrained by limited mandates and resources. Their essay calls for a recalibrated governance architecture that empowers cities through fiscal autonomy, national integration, and equitable access to climate finance.

Ramanath Jha and Dhaval Desai highlight the misalignment between the emerging city CAPs and long-standing urban practices that deepen vulnerability, such as rampant concertisation, diminishing green spaces, and inadequate stormwater infrastructure. Despite good intentions, weak legal mandates and poor resourcing constrain CAP implementation. Drawing lessons from Surabaya (Indonesia), New York (US), and Bristol (UK), the authors argue for integrated planning, legislative reform, and sustained support from all tiers of the government to convert CAPs from ambitious paperwork into actionable frameworks.

Turning attention to often-overlooked urban geographies, Aditi Dwivedi, Jigisha Jaiswal, Meera Mehta, and Dinesh Mehta examine the climate vulnerabilities of India’s small and medium towns, especially in relation to WASH. These towns face the dual challenge of being both contributors to and casualties of climate change. Evaluating successful innovations in Gujarat and Maharashtra, the authors call for urgent institutional reform and climate-oriented planning to create resilient and inclusive WASH systems, utilising reliable data.

Krishna Vohra puts forth a compelling case for passive cooling via restored green cover, vernacular architecture, and climate-sensitive urban design, as a low-cost, equitable, and immediate strategy to counter rising heat stress. While emerging technologies such as thermoelectric cooling hold promise, cost and supply chain constraints hamper their scalability. The essay argues for reorienting India’s cooling action plan around nature-based solutions and affordable approaches, with passive cooling as the foundation of present-day adaptation.

Kamal Kumar Murari builds on this argument and recommends the adoption of passive cooling strategies, such as ventilation, shading, and insulation, which can lower indoor temperatures by up to 9°C with reduced energy use and emissions. He lays bare the narrow focus of the current heat action plans and urges mainstreaming passive cooling into municipal regulations, building codes, and city planning, particularly to shield vulnerable populations in heat-stressed areas.

In a broader framing of urban resilience, Dhaval Desai’s essay urges Indian cities to adopt inclusive, anticipatory planning grounded in environmental and social equity. Drawing from experiences in New York, Medellín (Colombia), Freetown (Sierra Leone), and the Netherlands, the essay outlines practical tools, including climate-safe infrastructure, real-time alerts, green corridors, and local knowledge systems, that can enable cities to act early, adapt justly, and recover equitably.

Mitali Nikore, Brinda Juneja, and Vandhana Ramesh highlight how climate change magnifies gender-based inequalities, especially for marginalised women burdened by multiple, interconnected vulnerabilities of caste, class, geography, and care work. They present international and Indian case studies to recommend embedding gender equity into all levels of climate governance through mandatory mainstreaming, capacity-building, and institutional reform. Gender-responsive adaptation is both an ethical imperative and a practical necessity for durable resilience, they argue.

Meghna Verma explains that several technocratic and infrastructure-heavy approaches to urban resilience ignore climate justice. She calls for a radical shift toward equity-centred frameworks that acknowledge historical emissions, ensure fair climate finance, and prioritise well-being over growth. For cities to be truly resilient, sustainability must be socially transformative, not just technologically efficient.

Finally, Muhammad Hamisu Uadudu and Ruchi Soni focus on closing the climate finance gap through tools like voluntary carbon markets, blended finance, and green municipal bonds. Using examples from Nigeria, Kenya, Ghana, and Rwanda, they show how African cities are deploying scalable carbon credit systems and resilient infrastructure models. Their essay positions African innovation as a guiding model for cities across the Global South in mobilising climate finance and fostering inclusive, low-carbon urban development.

~ * ~

As cities across the Global South continue to urbanise at unprecedented rates, the choices we make now will define not just how we survive the Anthropocene, but whether we can reimagine cities as spaces of sustainability, justice, and well-being. This compendium, therefore, strives to offer insights to help our cities not only mitigate and adapt to climate disruptions but flourish despite them. We hope this effort will help urban planners, municipal administrators, grassroots leaders, policy analysts, and others committed to shaping cities that are not only resilient but also just and regenerative, through informed decisions.

Dhaval Desai Nandan Dawda Senior Fellow and Vice President, Fellow, ORF Mumbai ORF’s Urban Studies Programme

1. Policy Pathways for Urban Heat Resilience: Leveraging Digital Tools for Risk-Informed Adaptation

Madhurima Sarkar-Swaisgood and Aparna Roy

Across Asia and the Pacific, cities are facing a new climate reality: extreme heat is emerging as one of the most pervasive and deadly climate-related hazards. Once considered a seasonal discomfort, heat is now a slow-onset disaster that drives cascading risks, especially for the urban poor, informal workers, and the elderly. The silent nature of extreme heat belies its destructive power, which ranges from loss of life and diminished labour productivity to escalating energy demand and the disruption of public services.

With climate change intensifying heat extremes, conventional disaster risk reduction frameworks—primarily focused on rapid-onset events, such as typhoons and floods—are not adequately equipped to manage the growing heat burden. Recalibrating policy pathways to embed extreme heat prevention in urban climate resilience strategies is essential. These approaches must integrate governance, planning, and digital innovation to offer inclusive, forward-looking, and data-informed responses.

This essay outlines such policy pathways, drawing on recent regional insights. It highlights how digital tools, particularly the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific’s (ESCAP) Risk and Resilience Portal, can enhance early warning systems, strengthen anticipatory action, and support risk-informed planning in cities facing rising temperatures.

Recognising Heat as a Systemic Urban Risk

Urban heat is no longer a marginal issue. Recent analysis indicates that heatwaves are becoming more frequent, intense, and prolonged due to climate change, urban heat islands, and the unregulated expansion of built environments (1). Unlike cyclones or floods, heat does not destroy infrastructure instantly but leads to cumulative, irreversible losses—especially to human health, labour productivity, and well-being.

The health risks are most severe among children, older people, and outdoor workers who face continuous exposure (2). Poor urban communities, especially in informal settlements, suffer disproportionately due to inadequate housing, lack of access to cooling, and inadequate healthcare services (3). Without urgent adaptation, extreme heat will deepen inequality and reverse development gains.

Extreme heat already causes more fatalities annually than any other climate hazard—surpassing floods, hurricanes, and droughts combined in some countries (4). In South Asia alone, a 1°C rise in temperature has been linked to a 6 percent decline in agricultural labour capacity and a 4 percent increase in hospital admissions (5).

Cities such as Dhaka (Bangladesh), Delhi (India), and Jakarta (Indonesia) have seen a 52 percent rise in days with temperatures above 35°C in the last three decades (6). This number is expected to double by 2050 under high-emissions scenarios, affecting not only human survival but economic viability. By 2030, up to 2.5 percent of GDP could be lost annually in Asia-Pacific cities due to heat-induced labour productivity decline alone (7).

Yet, many countries in the region have not incorporated heat into national and city-level disaster risk management or adaptation frameworks. Treating heat as a core element of urban risk is a prerequisite for meaningful resilience-building. Recognising heat as a systemic risk also means factoring in cascading impacts—such as rising energy demand for cooling, strain on urban water systems, and disruption of essential services like transport and education—that compound existing vulnerabilities. Moreover, ignoring urban heat undermines the credibility of climate adaptation strategies and limits access to international climate finance that increasingly prioritises measurable human impact.

Building Governance Systems for Heat Resilience

Addressing heat requires whole-of-government coordination and multisectoral governance (8). Ministries of health, energy, urban development, meteorology, and disaster risk management must work together to plan and act. Countries can establish national heat action task forces that integrate line ministries and local governments to enhance their effectiveness and efficiency. They can include heat-specific indicators and targets in national adaptation plans and nationally determined contributions. Only 37 out of 95 countries have climate-informed health sector response plans for heat-related illnesses, indicating an urgent governance gap (9).

It is also essential to mandate city-level heat health action plans, modelled after successful examples in Ahmedabad, India (10). Ahmedabad’s heat action plan, first launched in 2013, combines early warning systems, public awareness campaigns, and targeted interventions for vulnerable groups. It sets temperature thresholds for heat alerts, coordinates response across municipal departments, trains healthcare workers to recognise and treat heat-related illnesses, and establishes cooling spaces and hydration points across the city. The plan’s success—reflected in reduced heatwave mortality—has inspired similar initiatives across several Indian states.

City governments, being at the frontline, need dedicated institutional capacities for heat planning by assigning focal points for heat action, training urban planners on thermal risk, and creating budget lines for cooling interventions and emergency response.

These institutional structures must also be gender- and equity-sensitive, ensuring that response protocols address the unique vulnerabilities of women, children, older persons, and persons with disabilities. Integrating gender-disaggregated data in risk assessments can support more inclusive planning and resource allocation.

Local heat governance requires both vertical and horizontal coordination: vertical coordination among national, provincial, and municipal authorities, and horizontal coordination across departments such as transport, housing, and health. Legal mandates can clarify roles and ensure accountability, particularly during heat emergencies.

Furthermore, the decentralisation of heat governance should be matched with fiscal empowerment—cities need direct access to climate finance for localised solutions. Examples from Seoul (South Korea) (11), Bangkok (Thailand) (12), and Pune (India) (13) show how city-level leadership can drive results when backed by clear mandates and financing mechanisms.

Integrating traditional knowledge, such as vernacular architecture, natural ventilation techniques, and water-based cooling practices, into governance frameworks can also enhance contextual resilience, especially in peri-urban and informal settings. Ultimately, governance for heat resilience must move from ad hoc measures to durable institutions with adaptive planning cycles.

Integrating Heat into Urban Planning and Design

Urban form is a powerful determinant of heat exposure. Sprawling cities with limited green cover and poor ventilation become heat traps. ESCAP research emphasises the need for heat-sensitive urban design as a core adaptation strategy (14).

Urban planning must prioritise increasing tree cover, implementing green roofs, and promoting the use of reflective surfaces to reduce urban heat island effects. Building codes need to be revised to incorporate passive cooling standards and heat-resilient materials. Furthermore, the design of public spaces and transit systems must include features such as shaded walkways, hydration points, and safe access routes during heat events.

Emerging city-level data from Bangkok, Manila (the Philippines), and Karachi (Pakistan) indicate that low-income neighbourhoods experience higher land surface temperatures than wealthier areas, underscoring the urgent need for climate-responsive zoning and equitable greening (15) (16).

These measures are particularly crucial for low-income and informal neighbourhoods, where risks are most significant. Community-based approaches that involve the co-design of interventions with vulnerable groups can ensure that responses are both equitable and effective.

Cities must also adopt dynamic urban heat maps, updated seasonally or annually, to guide land-use decisions, target green investments, and prevent maladaptive urban development in high-risk heat corridors. Tools like Singapore’s urban heat resilience strategies (17) or India’s National Institute of Urban Affairs-led heat mapping pilots (18) offer scalable models.

Building regulations should include mandatory tree-planting ratios, the use of permeable pavements, and incentives for the development of rooftop gardens. New housing and infrastructure projects, particularly those under affordable housing schemes, must meet minimum thermal comfort standards.

Transit-oriented development can also serve as a form of cooling infrastructure if designed with integrated shading, water features, and ventilation corridors. Strategic orientation of streets and parks to align with prevailing wind patterns can facilitate heat dispersion in dense neighbourhoods.

Finally, integrating resilience metrics into urban land valuation can shift developer incentives toward heat-sensitive design, creating a regulatory environment where sustainability is a competitive advantage rather than a compliance burden.

Leveraging Digital Tools for Anticipatory Action

The most transformative policy lever lies in the use of digital innovation for early warning and anticipatory action, where integrating multiple data, including those on hazards and climate, can be translated into policy mechanisms through new machine learning and artificial intelligence (AI) techniques that can save lives and guide investment.

ESCAP’s 2023 Asia-Pacific Disaster Report underscores the pivotal role of digital public goods in climate resilience (19). For instance, ESCAP’s Asia Pacific Risk and Resilience Portal can downscale global climate model data using interpolation methods, enhancing the spatial resolution of forecasts to city and district levels (20). This approach, piloted in countries like Bhutan (see Figure 1), provides actionable climate scenarios for urban policymakers who must account for diverse microclimates within their jurisdictions. These climate projections are further overlaid with population density, energy use, and health data to generate anticipatory impact maps. By using bias-corrected and downscaled climate data, city planners can identify future heat hotspots with high population exposure and plan accordingly.

Figure 1: Bhutan Risk and Resilience Portal

Source: Bhutan Risk and Resilience Portal (21)

ESCAP’s automated impact-based forecasting tool (see Figure 2) represents a significant advancement for seasonal risk assessment and early warning systems. AI algorithms trained on historical climate and impact data can predict who is at risk, not just where a hazard may occur. This could enable anticipatory action on heat alerts, targeting the most vulnerable populations with actionable recommendations.

Figure 2: ESCAP Impact-Based Forecasting Tool

Source: ESCAP Risk and Resilience Portal (22)

High-resolution climate data at city and district levels, or downscaled climate projections, enable planners to understand future heat hotspots and design adaptation interventions tailored to local contexts. Moreover, by overlaying socioeconomic, health, infrastructure, and environmental data, cities can perform integrated risk analytics to identify compound risks and prioritise investments in heat resilience accordingly.

Digital tools are more than just technical solutions; they are instruments of governance reform and improved decision-making. When these tools are embedded in local systems and co-developed with users, they become powerful assets in the pursuit of resilience.

Advancing Regional Cooperation on Heat

Extreme heat is not confined to national borders. Its drivers and impacts are transboundary, particularly when linked with glacial melt, changing monsoons, and regional energy demand surges. Regional coordination is essential; ESCAP has been at the forefront of regional cooperation seeking coherent, science-based and context-specific frameworks, and supporting initiatives such as the World Meteorological Organization’s Third Pole Regional Climate Centre Network and the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s Central Asian Regional Glaciological Centre and International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development’s leadership through the Hindu Kush Himalaya Call to Action (23).

Regional Climate Outlook Forums have the potential to be strengthened and include heat as a core hazard, thereby serving as platforms for cross-country learning. Additionally, regional mechanisms such as the South Asia Hydromet Forum (24) and ASEAN platforms can integrate extreme heat into their early warning agendas. ESCAP can play a convening role in this space by promoting harmonised heat thresholds, developing regional heat-health guidelines, and supporting the creation of shared digital infrastructure.

From Reactive Response to Proactive Preparedness

Recent analysis indicates that reactive emergency responses to heatwaves are inadequate (25). True resilience lies in anticipatory planning and long-term preparedness. This means transitioning from generalised weather forecasts to localised, impact-based early warnings. It also involves moving beyond post-disaster health responses by establishing preemptive cooling centres, ensuring access to water, and preparing medical systems for heat-related illnesses.

Pre-emptive measures include establishing urban cooling shelters, creating heat-resilient public spaces, and strengthening health systems with heatwave protocols and early medical interventions. Urban resilience strategies must go beyond physical infrastructure and address behavioural adaptation, such as changing school and work hours during heatwaves, educating the public on hydration and shelter, and supporting informal workers with protective equipment (26).

ESCAP’s Multi-Donor Trust Fund for Tsunami, Disaster and Climate Preparedness also underscores the role of risk governance in mainstreaming preparedness (27). Institutional arrangements must define heat emergencies, clarify lines of responsibility, and ensure that early action is financed and implemented across sectors. This includes scenario-based planning and simulation exercises that test readiness and refine coordination between agencies.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Extreme heat is no longer an emerging hazard confined to select geographies—it is now a pervasive and intensifying phenomenon that is reshaping the urban landscape across Asia and the Pacific, and increasingly across the globe. Its silent onset and cumulative impact make it a uniquely complex challenge: it does not level buildings or sweep away roads, but it erodes human health, degrades economic productivity, and disproportionately affects the poor and vulnerable. With projections indicating that heatwaves will intensify, increase in frequency, and last longer in the decades ahead, the time for transformative action is now. An integrated approach—combining digital innovation with inclusive planning and regional cooperation—offers a roadmap for governments at all levels. The current policy architecture, primarily designed to manage rapid-onset disasters such as floods and cyclones, remains ill-suited to respond to the slow-onset, compound nature of extreme heat. There is an urgent need to recalibrate planning, financing, and institutional frameworks to recognise heat as a major systemic risk. Governments must embed heat resilience into the core of their national climate adaptation strategies, urban development plans, and sectoral policies, particularly in the public health, housing, labour, and energy sectors.

Cities, being on the frontlines, must take the lead in operationalising this agenda. Municipal authorities should revise land use regulations, update building codes to require passive cooling and thermally efficient materials, and invest in urban greening, blue infrastructure, and climate-smart transport. Planning must go beyond infrastructure. Early warning systems for heat must be localised, impact-based, and accessible. Public health systems must be equipped with heatwave protocols and surge capacity. Labour regulations must protect outdoor and essential workers during peak heat days, and social protection systems must provide cooling support and health surveillance for at-risk populations.

Sectoral planning must give way to integrated urban resilience strategies that simultaneously address climate, health, and infrastructure risks. The deployment of AI-powered forecasting, climate modelling, and risk analytics should be leveraged through platforms like ESCAP’s Risk and Resilience Portal. Investment in early warning systems must focus on transitioning to impact-based and hyperlocal heat alerts, supported by strong public outreach strategies. Digital tools facilitate this shift by making future risks visible in the present. By integrating these tools into planning processes, cities can make informed decisions that prevent harm and mitigate the costs of inaction.

Regional collaboration is equally vital. Climate systems do not respect borders, and neither do the socioeconomic consequences of extreme heat. Strengthening the Regional Climate Outlook Forums, developing regional guidance, and facilitating data-sharing platforms will reinforce resilience across borders. Shared meteorological infrastructure, harmonised risk indicators, and regional and subregional platforms—such as the Regional Climate Forums (28), the Third Pole Regional Climate Network (29), and the Southeast Asia Heat Health Forum (30), as well as existing initiatives under the Sendai Framework (31) and the Paris Agreements (32)—must be scaled and aligned to include thermal risk explicitly. For example, the Regional Climate Outlook Forums could evolve into mechanisms that generate heat-specific advisories and coordinated policy responses.

Most importantly, at the core, the resilience agenda must be people-centred. Urban residents must be empowered not only as beneficiaries but as co-designers of adaptation. Civil organisations, communities, youth networks, and informal worker associations offer grounded insights that can vastly improve the relevance and equity of heat action plans. Digital tools must serve the last mile—translated into local languages, communicated through trusted channels, and tailored to reflect community realities.

In the coming decade, the decisions made about urban heat resilience will shape the well-being of billions. Building future-ready cities will require not only climate intelligence but determined and purposeful governance that prioritises long-term adaptation even when short-term political cycles do not reward it. Institutions must plan not for the heat of today, but for the extremes of tomorrow.

A forward-looking heat resilience strategy must therefore be grounded in three principles: equity, foresight, and systems integration. Equity ensures no group is left behind. Foresight mandates that risks are anticipated, not merely absorbed. And systems integration ensures that heat resilience is not treated as a niche environmental issue but as a cross-cutting development imperative.

If cities succeed in integrating these principles into their policies, planning, and finance, they will not only survive a warming world but also redefine what it means to thrive in it.

Madhurima Sarkar-Swaisgood is Deputy Section Chief of the Disaster Risk Reduction Section at the UN ESCAP.

Aparna Roy is Fellow & Lead, Climate Change and Energy, CNED at ORF.

Endnotes

(1) Sanjay Srivastava and Jayaraj Balakrishnan, “Adaptation in the Era of Extreme Heat: Tackling Irreversible Losses to Health and Wellbeing,” Green Network, March 24, 2025, https://greennetwork.asia/opinion/adaptation-in-the-era-of-extreme-heat-tackling-irreversible-losses-to-health-and-wellbeing/

(2) UNICEF, UNICEF East Asia and Pacific, https://www.unicef.org/eap/press-releases/sweltering-heat-across-east-asia-and-pacific-puts-childrens-lives-risk-unicef#:~:text=Heatwaves%20affect%20children%20more%20than,buildings%2C%20roads%2C%20and%20vehicles

(3) United Nations University, Loss and Damage in Informal Urban Settlements: Study Report, Aachen, United Nations University – Institute for Environment and Human Security, 2024, https://collections.unu.edu/eserv/UNU:9869/n20241007_Misereor_Study_Report.pdf

(4) World Health Organization Fact Sheet, “Heat and Health,” World Health Organization, https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/climate-change-heat-and-health

(5) N Watts et al., “The 2018 Report of the Lancet Countdown on Health and Climate Change: Shaping the Health of Nations for Centuries to Come,” Lancet, 392(10163):2479-2514, (2018), Erratum in: Lancet, Jun 6;395(10239):1762 (2020), https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30503045/

(6) International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), “52% Jump in Days Over 35°C in World’s Biggest Capital Cities,” IIED Climate Change, https://www.iied.org/52-jump-days-over-35degc-worlds-biggest-capital-cities

(7) Jonathan Woetzel, Dickon Pinner, Hamid Samandari, Rajat Gupta, Hauke Engel, Mekala Krishnan, and Carter Powis, Will India get too hot to work?, Washington DC, McKinsey Global Institute, 2020, https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/mckinsey/business%20functions/sustainability/our%20insights/will%20india%20get%20too%20hot%20to%20work/will-india-get%20too-hot-to-work-vf.pdf

(8) United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), Regional Cooperation to Enhance Multilevel Action and Raise Climate Ambitions, Bangkok, ESCAP, 2025, https://www.unescap.org/sites/default/d8files/event-documents/2500053E.pdf

(9) World Health Organization, 2021 WHO Health and Climate Change Global Survey Report, Geneva, World Health Organization, 2021, https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/348068/9789240038509-eng.pdf?sequence=1

(10) Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation, Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan: Guide to Extreme Heat Planning in Ahmedabad, India, (Ahmedabad: Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation, 2019), https://www.nrdc.org/sites/default/files/ahmedabad-heat-action-plan-2018.pdf

(11) Suhyun An and Aysin Dedekorkut-Howes, “The Heat Is on: How Well Are Densely Populated Korean Cities Adapting to Increased Temperatures and Urban Heat Island Effect?,” Environments 2025, 12(3), 87, https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12030087

(12) World Bank Group, Shaping a Cooler Bangkok: Tackling Urban Heat for a More Livable City, Thailand, 2025, World Bank, https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/thailand/publication/shaping-a-cooler-bangkok-tackling-urban-heat-for-a-more-livable-city

(13) Chandni Singh et al., “How are Indian cities adapting to extreme heat? Insights on heat risk governance and incremental adaptation from ten urban Heat Action Plans,” PLOS Climate 3(11): e0000484, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000484

(14) Sanjay Srivastava, Elena Pronina, Leila Salarpour Goodarzi, Shashwat Avi, Madhurima Sarkar-Swaisgood, comment on “An Era of Extreme Heat: Regional Solutions for Melting Glaciers,” comment posted May 26, 2025, https://www.unescap.org/blog/era-extreme-heat-regional-solutions-melting-glaciers# (accessed July 23, 2025)

(15) King Joshua Almadrones-Reyes and Nikki Heherson A. Dagamac, “Land-use/Land Cover Change and Land Surface Temperature in Metropolitan Manila, Philippines Using Landsat Imagery,” GeoJournal 88, no. 2: 1415–26 (2022), https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-022-10701-9

(16) Ghasem Rahimi and Seyed Ali Mohammad Tabatabaei, “Urbanization, Urban Heat Island, and Heat-Related Mortality: A Systematic Review,” Sustainability 12, no. 16: 1–25 (2020), https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7452575/

(17) Wei Zhu and Chao Yuan, “Urban Heat Health Risk Assessment in Singapore to Support Resilient Urban Design — by Integrating Urban Heat and the Distribution of the Elderly Population,” Cities 132: 104103 (2022), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2022.104103

(18) National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA), “Heat Mapping: Cast Studies from Indian Cities,” NIUA Cool Cities Hub, https://niua.in/c-cube/heat-mapping-case-studies-indian-cities

(19) United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), Seizing the Moment: Targeting Transformative Disaster Risk Resilience (Asia-Pacific Disaster Report 2023), Bangkok, ESCAP, 2023, https://un-ggim-ap.org/sites/default/files/media/docs/Asia-Pacific%20Disaster%20Report%202023-Full%20report.pdf

(20) United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), “Asia-Pacific Risk & Resilience Portal 2.0: Bridging the science policy gap for informed action,” ESCAP Risk and Resilience Portal, https://rrp.unescap.org/

(21) Bhutan Risk and Resilience Portal, “Data Portal,” Bhutan Risk and Resilience Portal, https://icare.thinkbluedata.com/?selectedObject={%22main%22:{%22current_tab%22:%22map%22,%22hazard%22:%22none%22,%22scenario_menu%22:%22%22,%22geo_level1%22:[],%22geo_level2%22:[],%22map_layers%22:[%22btn_boundary%22],%22chart_data%22:[%22btn_ind001%22],%22fav%22:false}}

(22) ESCAP Risk and Resilience Portal

(23) Sanjay Srivastava, Elena Pronina, Leila Salarpour Goodarzi, Shashwat Avi, Madhurima Sarkar-Swaisgood, comment on “An Era of Extreme Heat: Regional Solutions for Melting Glaciers”

(24) South Asia Hydromet Forum, “About SAHF,” South Asia Hydromet Forum, https://www.sahf.info/

(25) Sanjay Srivastava and Jayaraj Balakrishnan, “Adaptation in the Era of Extreme Heat: Tackling Irreversible Losses to Health and Wellbeing”

(26) R. Singh, J. Arrighi, E. Jjemba, K. Strachan, M. Spires, and A. Kadihasanoglu, Heatwave Guide for Cities, Geneva, Red Cross Red Crescent Climate Centre, 2019, https://preparecenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/ENG-RCCC-Heatwave-Guide2019.pdf

(27) United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), The Escap Trust Fund For Tsunami, Disaster And Climate Preparedness, Bangkok, ESCAP, 2005, https://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/Trust-Fund-Brochure.pdf

(28) World Meteorological Organization, “Regional Climate Outlook Forums,” WMO Community Platform, https://community.wmo.int/en/activity-areas/climate-services/regional-climate-outlook-forums

(29) World Meteorological Organization, “Welcome to Third Pole Regional Climate Centre Network,” WMO Third Pole RCC Network, http://www.rccra2.org/tp-rcc/

(30) Global Heat Health Information Forum (GHHIN), “1st GHHIN Southeast Asia Heat Health Forum,” GHHIN, https://ghhin.org/events/1st-ghhin-southeast-asia-heat-health-forum/

(31) United Nations, “Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction: Goal, Targets and Metrics,” United Nations Climate Change, https://unfccc.int/documents/628865

(32) United Nations, “The Paris Agreement: What is the Paris Agreement?” United Nations Climate Change, https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement

2. A Multi-Level ‘Mutirão’ Mandate for Urban Climate Action and Disaster Management

Sayli Mankikar and Shinjini Saha

With the world still unable to achieve 83 percent of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (1) and countries losing sight of the targets pledged in the Paris Agreement, the window for action under Agenda 2030 is rapidly closing. Worryingly, only 17 percent of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) targets are ‘on track,’ 18 percent have ‘stagnated,’ and 17 percent others have seen a ‘regression’ (see Figure 1) (2). Consequently, the SDGs’ universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure peace and prosperity for all by 2030 now seems to be merely aspirational.

Figure 1: Status of the Sustainable Development Goals (2015-2024)*

Source: The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2024 (3)

*Based on Global Aggregate Data

Countries have also failed even to reduce global emissions to contain global warming to 1.5°C, as pledged under the Paris Agreement (4). Global emissions have continued to rise, and cities are struggling to adapt to the changing climate (5).

With a record-high of nearly 29 billion tonnes of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, cities have accounted for almost 10 percent of the increase in global emissions since 2015 (6). Urban areas function both as sources and retainers of heat, especially due to increased anthropocentric activities. Their significant share of energy and transport-linked emissions, extensive concretisation, and unprecedented loss of green cover have contributed to the emergence of heat hotspots. As the world heats up, there is an increased demand for cooling infrastructure, pushing energy grids to the production brink and posing a new set of challenges for dense urban areas, which account for 75 percent of global energy consumption (7).

This scenario requires a concerted global effort to bring cities, which account for nearly two-thirds of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, to the forefront of climate action. Cities are on the frontline of dealing with climate-induced disasters that are borderless and exponential, affecting regions, economies, and communities indiscriminately (8). The increased intensity of extreme events is a grim reminder of the need to reimagine environmental management to address disasters through a coordinated and concerted multi-level approach to governance, grounded at the local and subnational levels of the government (9).

The upcoming COP30, to be held in Brazil, aligns with this effort, mainstreaming ‘global mutirão’ (10) (originally from the Tupi-Guarani language, meaning ‘collective efforts for a shared task’) to translate negotiations into action to heal the planet by framing a strong narrative that emphasises the role of urban landscapes in advancing climate action (11).

The Evolving Recognition of Cities and Multi-level Governance

Although the term ‘cities’ was not explicitly mentioned (12), cities first emerged as key actors in global climate policy during COP15 in Denmark (2009). COP15 laid the groundwork for acknowledging the role of cities in climate action by emphasising the need for ‘strong political will’ per the principles of ‘common but differentiated responsibilities’, which has been interpreted as a reference to cities (13). The Copenhagen Accord, a key outcome of COP15, recognised the need for climate action at all levels of the government, including the local level (14). While these steps established the multi-level governance imperative, it was only institutionalised at COP21 in France (2015), which acknowledged local and subregional governments as ‘non-party stakeholders’ in climate action under the Paris Agreement (15).

Accommodating over four billion people (16), cities host more than half the world’s population. They generate more than 80 percent of the global GDP and contribute over 70 percent of GHG emissions (17). These dense geographies have the highest energy consumption, but also foster innovation, employment, and opportunities. While they are vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, extensively disaster-prone, and suffer the highest climate-related economic losses, they are also the most ambitious in terms of climate strategies. While national governments generally prepare broad guidelines and implementation strategies, as evidenced by the nationally determined contributions (NDCs), subnational governments have mainly driven ground-level interventions (18). Therefore, the inclusion of local governments in the ministerial agenda at COP28 in Dubai (2023), and the call for multi-level cooperation through global mutirão at the forthcoming COP30, mark a significant step toward legitimising the role of cities.

The progress of local and subnational climate advocacy reflects a steady evolution in recognising and engaging cities within the global climate regime. Beginning with the 1992 Earth Summit (19) and the Habitat II agenda in 1996 (20), subnational actors gained early visibility, with local governments and municipal authorities becoming one of the first three official UN Framework Convention on Climate Change constituencies (21). Between 2005 and 2009, with the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol (22) and the unfolding of discussions for the Bali Roadmap (23) and COP15, ICLEI facilitated the preparation of the Local Government Climate Roadmap (24), advocating for recognition, engagement, and empowerment of local governments in climate action.

The following five years (2010-2015) marked further progress, with the Cancún Agreements (25), the Lima-Paris Action Agenda (26), and the NAZCA Platform (27) underscoring the relevance of multi-level governance. Notably, the Paris Agreement also formally recognised the crucial role of all levels of government in climate action (28).

From 2016 to 2024, the NDCs (29), the Marrakech Partnership for Global Climate Action (30), the Talanoa Dialogue Platform (31), the High-Level Climate Champions (32), and the Global Stocktake (33) process further institutionalised local and subnational actors. The Glasgow Climate Pact (34) reaffirmed the need for multi-level action in its preamble, and the UAE Consensus from COP28, particularly paragraph 161 of the stocktake decision (35), explicitly urged all parties and non-party stakeholders to enhance multi-level cooperation. Furthermore, the Mitigation Work Programme has opened new avenues for embedding subnational contributions within global climate mitigation efforts (36).

The ambitious Coalition for High Ambition Multi-Level Partnerships (CHAMP), launched in COP28, brought together national governments committed to working more collaboratively with their subnational governments in the design, financing, and implementation of climate action (37). These partnerships include the NDCs submission due at COP30 and other climate strategies, such as National Adaptation Plans or Long-Term Low-Emission Development Strategies (38). To date, 75 national governments have endorsed the CHAMP coalition, committing to strengthening subnational climate action (39).

The concept of multi-level governance was established in the early 1990s as a response to the European Union moving away from the traditional state-centric model of governance to involve supranational, national, and subnational actors (40). SDG-17 (partnership for the goals) explicitly highlights the need to initiate a collective response focusing on multi-level action, a prerequisite for achieving the remaining 16 SDGs (41).

Figure 2: A Timeline of Key Global Climate Action Milestones (2009-2025)

Source: Compiled by ICLEI from various UN sources.

Local, national, and sub-national cooperation, therefore, is critical to urgently accelerate global climate action and address the impending climate catastrophe.

Brazil’s Green Resilient Model Cities Programme demonstrates how cities and local governments can be at the forefront of addressing climate change. Aligning with CHAMP, the programme, championed by the national government, will drive 50 cities in Brazil to undertake 100 transformative climate actions, including the restoration of urban green areas and the electrification of their bus fleets (42).

Cities and Global Mutirão

In March 2025, COP30 president André Corrêa do Lago introduced the global mutirão initiative and announced that ‘cities’ would feature as a special theme at the summit (43). Global mutirão promises to deliver integrated, holistic, and ambitious climate action as a positive, collective response to the challenges of a fragmenting world (44). This would mean including local communities in a particular context to work together, as well as with governments and non-governmental stakeholders, to address a challenge or issue that impacts them.

A live project based on the concept of mutirão in India aims to collaborate with the tea estate workers in Northern West Bengal to address the pressing challenges of accessing water for the workers and their families (45). The extensive use of fertilisers, pesticides, and agrochemicals by the tea gardens, combined with the indiscriminate disposal of waste along the mountain slopes and often into the streams, has led to a significant degradation of the local ecology, resulting in a shortage of water for irrigation. ICLEI South Asia is supporting the local populations in developing a community-led action plan for four tea estates in Darjeeling and Kurseong. The plan will help and empower the tea growers to overcome these challenges through indigenous efforts. The interventions under the plan include developing a collaborative platform for the local government, tea estate managements, local NGOs, and communities (particularly women from indigenous and migrant communities). The project will train and build the capacity of a cadre of ‘barefoot hydrogeologists’ from local communities to institutionalise community-led and people-managed water security plans, which can act as a role model for the region (46).

Multi-Level Governance and Global Mutirão

In May, climate ministers and government leaders from 40 countries met in Copenhagen, Denmark, to discuss key issues and expectations ahead of the COP30 summit (47). The meeting emphasised the importance of the mutirão approach from the cities’ perspective, underlining the critical, frontline role of subnational governments in implementing mitigation and adaptation measures, as essential providers of sustainable, global-scale climate solutions (48). It also featured a dedicated roundtable session on multi-level climate action, which emphasised the need for cities to be an integral part of the decisions that shape climate policy at every level (49).

The following month, at the BRICS Urbanisation Forum, Brazil’s cities minister urged bringing the urban agenda to the forefront of efforts to address the climate crisis, which is resulting in increased catastrophes and inequality (50). Aligning the multi-level action agenda with disaster risk, the BRICS ministers reaffirmed their commitment to advancing a multi-level governance model to develop more inclusive, resilient, and sustainable cities, with a focus on reducing social inequalities and disaster risk.

The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2025, an international agreement adopted by the UN to reduce disaster risk and losses, also endorses the involvement of cities in the global fight against climate change (51). The Framework’s guiding principles urge empowering ‘local authorities and communities’ through resources, incentives, and decision-making responsibilities as one of its key recommendations for mitigating natural disasters and making cities climate-resilient.

The Framework’s priorities for action reiterate that disaster risk governance at the national, regional and global levels is vital to the management of disaster risk reduction in all sectors and ensuring the coherence of national and local frameworks of laws, regulations and public policies that, by defining roles and responsibilities, guide, encourage and incentivise the public and private sectors to take action and address disaster risk” (52).

Multi-level Action Through Mutirão

Unless local governments are empowered with the necessary fiscal autonomy, technological resources, and legal mandates, the aspiration for transformative, inclusive, and just climate action will remain rhetorical. With COP30 placing the spotlight on Global South urbanism and multi-level partnerships, cities must rise to the challenge, scaling up local climate innovations and integrating them into regional and global climate strategies. The following recommendations can help cities achieve a key position in international climate action through result-oriented mutirão action.

Arriving at the Optimal Scale of Governance: What is the perceived optimal scale for climate action, the optimal scale for impact, and thus the optimal scale for governance? As a borderless issue, climate change calls for concerted global efforts. While a mass movement and global platform are necessary for a collective approach and accountability, the need for context-relevant solutions cannot be neglected. The shift from government to governance reflects an evolving discourse that emphasises inclusivity in policymaking and creating enabling conditions that allow space for local authorities, non-state actors, and communities to engage in action. Such a shift will also involve creating national priorities that include the devolution of power to sub-national governments, enabling them to take appropriate action that is inclusive, community-driven, contextual, and scalable.

Defining the Urban Dimension in Climate and Disaster Plans: As cities emerge as pivotal actors in delivering climate goals, the urban dimension remains undefined, underrepresented, or underfunded in many national plans, often limiting their effectiveness. The integration of urban components in the NDCs can only happen through meaningful inclusion of local and subnational governments. Climate and sustainability goals cannot be seen in isolation and are drivers for both determining and achieving NDCs.

Access to Finance: Steady and assured fiscal flows are needed to drive impact, highlighting the need to adequately finance sustainable urban development at all levels. Multi-level governance offers a pathway for cities to maximise their potential in climate leadership. With access to finance being a key factor hindering effective implementation, the COP30 presidency should strive to empower urban centres by mitigating structural, financial, and political constraints.

Conclusion

COP30’s mutirão framework, rooted in collective mobilisation across all levels of governance and grounded in the lived realities of communities, offers a timely opportunity to reimagine the role of cities not just as implementers but as co-creators of climate solutions. Municipalities must prioritise nature-based solutions, embed resilience into land-use planning, decarbonise public transport, and localise energy transitions. These efforts will only succeed if backed by genuine participatory governance that gives voice to informal workers, youth, women, and indigenous groups. Cities can lead global climate action if the local and subregional strategies and interventions are truly democratic, co-produced, and co-owned.

To address disasters and build resilience in the urban context, and meet the SDGs and Paris Agreement goals, a multi-pronged subregional strategy is critical, involving recalibrating governance structures, contextualising solutions, adequately incorporating the urban dimension, and providing guaranteed access to finance.

Sayli Mankikar is an Associate Director (Knowledge Management and Advocacy) at ICLEI South Asia.

Shinjini Saha is a Knowledge Management Expert at ICLEI South Asia.

Endnotes

(1) United Nations, The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2024, New York, United Nations, 2024, https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2024/The-Sustainable-Development-Goals-Report-2024.pdf

(2) “The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2024”

(3) “The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2024”

(4) United Nations, “The Paris Agreement: What is the Paris Agreement,” United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement

(5) Cities and Regions in the UNFCCC Process, Local Governments and Municipal Authorities (LGMA) Constituency, LGMA COP29 Position Paper, Bonn, Cities and Regions in the UNFCCC Process, June 2024, https://www.cities-and-regions.org/wp-content/uploads/lgma-cop29-position-paper.pdf

(6) International Energy Agency, Empowering Urban Transitions: Smart Cities and Smart Grids, Paris, International Energy Agency, 2024, https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/00f7d520-d517-473d-b357-5adb43c4a57e/EmpoweringUrbanEnergyTransitions.pdf

(7) UN-Habitat, “Urban Energy: Overview,” UN-Habitat, https://unhabitat.org/topic/urban-energy#:~:text=To%20run%20their%20activities%2C%20cities,the%20world's%20total%20greenhouse%20gases.

(8) United Nations Regional Information Centre, Cities Are on the Frontline of Climate Change, Brussels, United Nations Regional Information Centre, 2023, https://unric.org/en/cities-are-on-the-frontline-of-climate-change/

(9) International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), Brazilian COP30 Presidency Advances Global “Mutirão” Against Climate Change, Winnipeg, IISD SDG Knowledge Hub, May 2025, https://sdg.iisd.org/news/brazilian-cop-30-presidency-advances-global-mutirao-against-climate-change/

(10) COP30 Brazil Amazonia, “Global Mutirão: The COP30 aims to go beyond negotiations to ‘heal’ the planet,” COP30-Belém, 2025, https://cop30.br/en/news-about-cop30/global-mutirao-the-cop30-aims-to-go-beyond-negotiations-to-heal-the-planet

(11) International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), 2025 UN Climate Change Conference (UNFCCC COP30), Winnipeg, IISD SDG Knowledge Hub, https://sdg.iisd.org/news/brazilian-cop-30-presidency-advances-global-mutirao-against-climate-change/; Héctor Miguel Kuyper, Björn-Ola Linnér, and Eva Lövbrand, “Non-State Actors in Global Climate Governance: From Copenhagen to Paris and Beyond,” Environmental Politics, 26 (4): 561–79 (2017), https://doi:10.1080/09644016.2017.1327485

(13) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Paris Agreement, 2015, https://unfccc.int/files/meetings/paris_nov_2015/application/pdf/paris_agreement_english_.pdf

(14) Center for Climate and Energy Solutions (C2ES), 15th Session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Washington, Center for Climate and Energy Solutions, 2009, https://www.c2es.org/content/cop-15-copenhagen/

(15) C40 Cities, “Cities and the Paris Agreement: What the Paris Agreement Means for Cities,” C40 Cities, https://www.c40knowledgehub.org/s/article/Paris-Agreement?language=en_US

(16) World Bank, “Urban Development – Overview,” World Bank Group, https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/urbandevelopment/overview

(17) World Economic Forum, BiodiverCities by 2030: Transforming Cities’ Relationship with Nature, Cologny, World Economic Forum, 2022, https://www.weforum.org/press/2022/01/biodivercities-initiative-set-to-transform-global-urban-infrastructure-by-2030/

(18) Héctor Miguel Donado and Walther López López, “Empowering Cities to Shape Stronger, More Inclusive NDCs: Lessons from Colombia,” TheCityFix, November 6, 2024, https://thecityfix.com/blog/empowering-cities-to-shape-stronger-more-inclusive-ndcs-lessons-from-colombia/

(19) Global Taskforce of Local and Regional Governments, From the Paris Agreement to Habitat III: a Global Preview of Sustainability in 2016, Barcelona, Global Taskforce of Local and Regional Governments, 2016, https://www.global-taskforce.org/paris-agreement-habitat-iii-global-preview-sustainability-2016#:~:text=While%20the%20Earth%20did%20not,sustainable%20cities%20and%20human%20settlements

(20) United Nations, “United Nations Conference on Human Settlements: Habitat II,” United Nations, 1996, https://www.un.org/en/conferences/habitat/istanbul1996

(21) ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability, “Local Governments and Municipal Authorities Constituency (LGMA): The Voice of Cities and Regions in the UNFCCC Climate Process,” ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability, https://iclei.org/local-governments-and-municipal-authorities-constituency-lgma/

(22) United Nations, “What is the Kyoto Protocol?” United Nations Climate Change, https://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol

(23) United Nations, “Bali Roadmap Intro,” United Nations Climate Change, https://unfccc.int/process/conferences/the-big-picture/milestones/bali-road-map#:~:text=The%20Bali%20Road%20Map%20includes,established%20in%20Montreal%20in%202005

(24) ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability, Local Government Climate Roadmap, Freiburg, ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability, 2009, https://seors.unfccc.int/applications/seors/attachments/get_attachment?code=4YP5UK31L8YHGD2AD4RKXBWEWJFBPM71

(25) United Nations, “Intro to Cancún Agreements,” United Nations Climate Change, https://unfccc.int/process/conferences/the-big-picture/milestones/the-cancun-agreements#:~:text=The%20Cancun%20Agreements%20were%20a,Transparency%20of%20actions

(26) United Nations, “The Lima-Paris Action Agenda: Promoting Transformational Climate Action,” United Nations Climate Change, https://unfccc.int/news/the-lima-paris-action-agenda-promoting-transformational-climate-action

(27) United Nations, “United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),” United Nations Climate Change, https://unfccc.int/playground-20/level-2/level-3/united-nations-framework-convention-on-climate-change-unfccc-2

(28) United Nations, Paris Agreement, New York, United Nations, 2015, https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/english_paris_agreement.pdf

(29) United Nations, “Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): The Paris Agreement and NDCs,” United Nations Climate Change, https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/nationally-determined-contributions-ndcs

(30) United Nations, “Marrakech Partnership for Global Climate Action,” United Nations Climate Change, https://unfccc.int/climate-action/engagement/marrakech-partnership

(31) United Nations, “2018 Talanoa Dialogue Platform,” United Nations Climate Change, https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement/2018-talanoa-dialogue-platform

(32) United Nations, “Work of the Climate High-Level Champions,” United Nations Climate Change, https://unfccc.int/climate-action/engagement/marrakech-partnership-for-global-climate-action/actors/meet-the-champions/work-of-the-climate-high-level-champions

(33) United Nations, “Global Stocktake,” United Nations Climate Change, https://unfccc.int/topics/global-stocktake

(34) United Nations, Glasgow Climate Pact, New York, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2021, https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/cop26_auv_2f_cover_decision.pdf

(35) https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/cma2023_L17_adv.pdf

(36) ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability, LGMA COP30 Position: Rallying for Local-to-Global – COP30 and Beyond, Bonn, ICLEI Global Advocacy Team, May 2025, https://www.cities-and-regions.org

(37) COP28 UAE, “Coalition for High Ambition Multi-level Partnerships for Climate Action (CHAMP),” COP28 UAE, https://www.cop28.com/en/cop28-uae-coalition-for-high-ambition-multilevel-partnerships-for-climate-action

(38) United Nations, “LT-LEDS Synthesis Report,” United Nations Climate Change, https://unfccc.int/lt-leds-synthesis-report

(39) Matteo Bizzotto, From Fragmentation to Structure: CHAMP Helps Scaling Climate Action across All Levels, ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability, Bonn, ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability, 2025, https://talkofthecities.iclei.org/from-fragmentation-to-structure-champ-helps-scaling-climate-action-across-all-levels/

(40) Ian Bache, “Multi-Level Governance in the European Union,” in Oxford Handbook of Governance, ed. D. Levi-Faur, (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 628–41

(41) United Nations, “Goal 17: Partnerships for the Goals,” United Nations Global Goals, https://globalgoals.org/goals/17-partnerships-for-the-goals/

(42) C40 Cities, “Brazil launches national program to structure 100 high-impact climate actions in cities,” London, C40 Cities, March 27, 2025, https://www.c40.org/news/brazil-launches-green-resilient-model-cities-program/

(43) COP30 Brazil Amazonia, “First Letter from the President of COP30, Ambassador André Corrêa do Lago,” COP30-Belém, 2025, https://cop30.br/en/brazilian-presidency/letters-from-the-presidency/letter-from-the-brazilian-presidency

(44) COP30 Brazil Amazonia, “Burkinidi, minka, and balu wala: Learn about the many versions of COP30's ‘Global Mutirão,’” COP30-Belém, 2025, https://cop30.br/en/news-about-cop30/burkinidi-minka-and-balu-wala-learn-about-the-many-versions-of-cop30s-global-mutirao

(45) ICLEI South Asia, Community-Led Action Plan (CLAP) for Climate-Resilient Water Security in Four Tea Gardens of Darjeeling and Kurseong, New Delhi, ICLEI South Asia, 2023, https://southasia.iclei.org/project/community-led-action-plan-clap-for-climate-resilient-water-security-in-four-tea-gardens-of-darjeeling-and-kurseong/

(46) ICLEI South Asia, “Community-Led Action Plan (CLAP) for Climate-Resilient Water Security in Four Tea Gardens of Darjeeling and Kurseong”

(47) COP30 Brazil Amazonia, “COP30 President stresses importance of multilateralism and urgency of action to tackle climate change,” COP30-Belém, 2025, https://cop30.br/en/news-about-cop30/cop30-president-stresses-importance-of-multilateralism-and-urgency-of-action

(48) COP30 Brazil Amazonia, “COP30 President stresses importance of multilateralism and urgency of action to tackle climate change”

(49) BRICS Brazil 2025, “There Is No Climate Justice without Urban and Social Justice,” Says Minister Jader Barbalho Filho during BRICS Meeting,” BRICS Urbanization Forum Brazil 2025, https://brics.br/en/news/there-is-no-climate-justice-without-urban-and-social-justice-says-minister-jader-barbalho-filho-during-brics-meeting

(50) BRICS Brazil 2025, “There Is No Climate Justice without Urban and Social Justice,” Says Minister Jader Barbalho Filho during BRICS Meeting”

(51) United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR), “What Is the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction?,” United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR), https://www.undrr.org/implementing-sendai-framework/what-sendai-framework

(52) United Nations, Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030, New York, United Nations, 2015, https://www.preventionweb.net/files/43291_sendaiframeworkfordrren.pdf

3. Strange Bedfellows: Preparing Climate Action Plans While Perpetuating Disaster-Driving Urban Policies

Ramanath Jha and Dhaval Desai

In recent decades, Indian cities have experienced the impact of climate change with increasing intensity and frequency. Data from the Indian Meteorological Department (1) (IMD) indicates that the country, particularly its cities, is facing increasingly severe threats from extreme weather events, including heatwaves, cold waves, and floods. Coastal cities will likely experience greater vulnerability from cyclones, extreme precipitation events, and rising sea levels. International agencies such as the World Meteorological Organization (2) and the International Institute for Environment and Development (3) have also warned that climate change-induced weather events will increase in frequency and severity. Given these projections, Indian cities must prepare to counter urban disasters in their various manifestations.

The average annual global temperature in 2023 was 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels (1850-1900), marking the ninth consecutive year of such a phenomenon (4). Consequently, some Indian cities experienced heatwave conditions in the first fortnight of March 2023, others faced severe heat conditions in April, and extreme heat prevailed in several states in May (5). In 2022—the fifth hottest year in India since 1901 (see Figure 1)—the IMD reported 280 heatwave days across 16 states. The IMD also noted that the annual mean land surface air temperature that year averaged +0.51°C above the long-term range average in the 1981-1991 decade (6). Incidentally, 2022, also recorded 57 cold wave days, with Haryana experiencing the maximum days (nine) of extreme cold (7).

Such extreme temperatures indicate increasingly erratic temperature patterns. For example, in June 2023, southern peninsular India recorded the highest-ever average maximum temperature of 34.05°C since 1901, surpassing the previous record of 33.74°C in June 2014. Globally, 3 July 2023 was the world’s hottest-ever day, with an average temperature of 17.01°C, triggering heatwaves across several geographies (8). Meanwhile, on 29 May 2024, Delhi’s Mungeshpur recorded a temperature of 52.3oC, India’s hottest ever (9).

Figure 1: Five Warmest Years Recorded in India Since 1901 (in °C)

Source: Compiled by the authors from IMD Annual Reports.

In response, several urban local bodies (ULBs) in India have begun preparing climate action plans (CAPs) to mitigate and adapt to climate change. However, these well-intentioned documents often coexist with urban planning and development practices that actively undermine climate resilience. This paradox—wherein cities draft ambitious CAPs while perpetuating urban development policies that fuel urban disasters—lies at the heart of this essay.

Navigating Climate Impacts on Cities

The various negative consequences of climate change on Indian cities are well established (10). For instance, in 2023, 119 people reportedly lost their lives to extreme heat, 18 died due to extreme cold and snow, 739 people died due to lightning and thunderstorms, and 706 died because of floods and landslides (11). Notably, in the same year, cyclonic disturbances were above normal in the Arabian Sea and below normal over the Bay of Bengal, indicating the emergence of erratic climatic patterns across the country. During the 2024 monsoon, cities like Vijayawada in Andhra Pradesh and Hyderabad in Telangana experienced heavy rainfall and flooding. A spell of torrential downpour also brought parts of Delhi to a standstill (12). Mumbai, Bengaluru, Kolkata, Chennai, Pune, Vadodara, Guwahati, and many other cities were also impacted by post-monsoon floods (13).

Figure 2: Top 10 States with Human Casualties Due to Extreme Weather Events in 2023

A graph with orange and white stripes AI-generated content may be incorrect.Source: Compiled by the authors from IMD Annual Reports (14)

Extreme weather events also result in the destruction of municipal infrastructure (15) and individual livelihoods and are harmful to city economies. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has cautioned that climate change-related job losses could cause India’s GDP to drop by 4.5 percent by 2030 (16). Furthermore, India is among the top 10 economies with respect to vulnerability to climate risk events (17).

With the increasing frequency of climate-related crises in Indian cities, the challenge of building resilience and disaster preparedness is now at the forefront in the national urbanisation discourse. India is projected to experience extensive urbanisation, with more than 50 percent of the population (or 877 million people) expected to live in cities by 2050. This urban growth will contribute more than 75 percent to India’s GDP and account for 60 percent of its greenhouse gas emissions (18). Consequently, cities must take serious steps to mitigate the daunting challenges of climate change and must establish disaster plans to minimise the impacts of extreme weather events. Notably, several Indian cities, such as Mumbai, Chennai, Ahmedabad, Pune, Bengaluru, Jamnagar, Junagadh, and Leh, have prepared CAPs (19).

The Mumbai Climate Action Plan 2022 (MCAP), for instance, focused on tackling climate change and strengthening the city’s climate resilience (20). It identified urban flooding, coastal risks, urban heat, landslides, and air pollution as the most significant threats and outlined ways to garner resources to transition from action planning to implementing strategic projects. The MCAP also suggested an institutional mechanism (‘climate cell’) to coordinate the implementation and monitoring of all activities related to climate change.

Similarly, the Chennai Climate Action Plan, released in June 2023 (21), discussed extreme precipitation events causing severe floods, rising sea levels, and extreme heat, and identified informal settlements and their residents as most vulnerable. The plan pledged Chennai to become net zero by 2050, setting targets of 1 percent by 2030 and 40 percent by 2040 (compared to 2018-19) by adopting short-, medium-, and long-term strategies. It also outlined establishing a new ‘Department of Climate Change Initiatives’ under the municipal corporation.

However, despite such developments, the challenge is to implement CAPs by enacting the necessary changes in city governance and planning. Most cities that have prepared CAPs encounter a severe lack of commitment to implementation. Institutional and financial backing and a clear implementation roadmap are necessary for any significant mitigation (22).

A certain level of responsibility lies with the state governments. Wielding significant influence on all aspects of city planning, governance, and finance (23), state governments play a critical role in building climate-resilient cities. Climate resilience should not be an optional municipal obligation, as achieving climate resilience is central to city sustainability. Most municipal statutes do not mandate the preparation and implementation of CAPs (24), and so many Indian cities have not found it necessary to prepare CAPs. The states, therefore, must amend state municipal laws to include CAPs as an obligatory ULB function.

Additionally, the national and state governments also play a significant role in funding city-level climate mitigation and adaptation strategies. Local self-governments are financially weak (25), rendered more fragile after the Goods and Services Tax subsumed most ULB revenue handles, barring property tax (26). Thus, the states and the central government will need to support city climate mitigation activities instead of leaving them as unfunded ULB mandates. 

This approach will necessitate a thorough scrutiny of the multidimensional activities and functions of cities, including construction practices (by reconsidering the development control and promotion regulations that regulate construction), waste management, the maximisation of green spaces, and the adoption of green technologies through the climate lens (27) (28).

All-round capacity building is a significant prerequisite of climate change mitigation and adaptation (29). Each state should create a shared platform to share best practices in climate action. Academic and training establishments should offer their services towards multi-stakeholder capacity-building and to promote environmentally responsible behaviour (such as water conservation, reducing waste generation, and use of public transport) (30).

Areas of Urban Architecture that Fuel Disaster

While cities introduce mitigation and adaptation measures, it is vital that they also frame implementation strategies in accordance with sustainability principles. However, many aspects that impact disaster preparedness and climate mitigation are being seriously neglected. These include: 

Stormwater management: Stormwater drains along roads are designed to drain excess water from impermeable surfaces, such as footpaths, streets, and roofs, into a larger water system. Most Indian cities lack adequate stormwater drainage systems; some have them in select localities, and others have poor interconnection (31). Additionally, almost all urban stormwater drains get clogged with mud and waste, significantly reducing their utility over time.

Many cities are now covering the drains by inserting concrete pipes and building roads over them. Cities have used this measure to relieve mounting traffic congestion, but this seriously hampers the drain capacity and its maintenance. Furthermore, open spaces are needlessly concretised, leaving less permeable land in the city and converting more open spaces into built spaces (32).

Proliferation of slums: The failure of larger cities to build affordable housing has had disastrous consequences (33). City economies have informalised (34), supported by migrants. These migrants, essentially daily-wage workers, are forced to create slums in open and unbuilt areas (35). In the process, all kinds of water outlets, such as rivers, mangroves, and drains, become sites for living for and dumping by slum dwellers. Clogged culverts, encroached rivers, heavily silted drains, and dysfunctional stormwater systems leave no outlet for rainwater (36). In this scenario, rainwater accumulates, flooding large neighbourhoods. In the event of excessive precipitation, floods occur due to a situation primarily created by local activities.

Governance vacuum: Cities have also been guilty of side-stepping significant governance issues. Unauthorised constructions have proliferated across Indian cities, particularly metropolitan areas and megacities, despite anti-encroachment drives (37). There are two significant consequences: one aggravates heat, and the other worsens floods. More construction leads to more heat generation, contributing to the urban heat island effect. Second, as developers seek to encroach on public land and water bodies, city rivers, lakes, drains, and ponds begin to disappear or reduce in size and capacity, severely limiting the efficiency and capacity of these natural sponges. In the event of a flood, such encroachments worsen the gravity of the situation.

Disappearing open and green spaces: There is a pressing need to understand the trade-off between built and unbuilt environments. The issue of maintaining a mandated level of open public spaces has been a point of contention between citizens and city administrations across India. The most recent example of this tussle is the city-wide protest against an art complex in the 300-acre Cubbon Park, fearing a private takeover leading to the shrinking of the city’s green lung (38). The Urban and Regional Development Plans Formulation and Implementation guidelines have laid standards for each city to ensure 10-12 sq m of open space per person (39). However, many cities have failed to comply with this mandate. Population growth necessitates space for every individual—for housing, workplace, roads, schools, hospitals, and recreation—that can be met through more construction. Furthermore, the city must make arrangements for additional water and sanitation, waste disposal, and other activities that each individual generates. However, the environment, apart from several different factors, also requires openness and open spaces. These adversarial demands can be satisfied only if the two are balanced. This balance requires a cap on the human footprint in the city. This calls for a comprehensive review of cities’ land-use practices.

Learnings from Global Local Climate Action Models

Many countries have already taken such action, mandating the preparation and funding of local climate plans (LCPs). In the United Kingdom (UK), local planning authorities are legally bound to have their LCPs contain “policies designed to secure that the development and use of land in the local planning authority's area contribute to the mitigation of, and adaptation to, climate change” (40). Though the UK has set a net-zero target of 2050, several cities, such as Manchester (41) and Bristol (42), have set earlier targets (2038 and 2030, respectively) in their LCPs. They have introduced carbon budgeting, emphasised community engagement and embedded nature-based solutions and sustainable transport policies into local spatial frameworks. In 2022, the Bristol City Council entered a partnership with Ameresco Limited and Vattenfall Heat UK to secure £1 billion (~USD$13.5 million) in investment to help make the city carbon neutral and climate resilient by 2030 (43).

New York’s 2023 ‘PlaNYC: Getting Sustainability Done’ (44) devised comprehensive climate action strategies with an immediate implementation roadmap, equity, and economic opportunity. Prioritising robust cross-agency coordination and community engagement across 240 diverse stakeholders, PlaNYC’s early achievements include securing a US$1 billion federal infrastructure grant to advance environmental justice through targeted investments in underserved communities, initiate carbon reduction projects, create green jobs, and enhance New York’s climate resilience (45).

Surabaya, Indonesia’s second-largest city, has received international recognition for its comprehensive climate action initiatives, fostering community engagement, urban greening, sustainable mobility, and disaster management (46). The city implemented the ‘Kampung Improvement Programme’ in 2005 for community-led waste segregation, composting, and greening, leading to 90 percent reduction in waste dumping in landfills and creating improved living conditions for low-income groups (47). In 2010, Surabaya embarked on a 10-year green expansion action plan, developing 420 city parks, urban forests, and reservoirs, and a 35-hectare green belt to absorb vehicular emissions and curb air pollution (48). In 2018, the city introduced innovative measures that allowed commuters to buy Suroboyo bus tickets using plastic bottles. As of 2022, 60 percent of bus riders exchanged plastic bottles worth 150 million rupiahs (~US$9,500) (49). This innovative measure promoted recycling, reduced plastic pollution, and encouraged the use of public transportation.

Conclusion

The growing frequency and intensity of climate-induced disasters have made India’s cities highly vulnerable. While city-level CAPs are a promising first step toward proactive climate governance, the persistence of disaster-exacerbating urban practices reveals a deep-seated dissonance between intention and implementation. Effective climate resilience, as espoused by international frameworks, including the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (50), the UN-Habitat New Urban Agenda (51), or Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s AR6 Urban Chapters (52), thus demands an overhaul of how cities are planned, governed, and financed.

This entails making CAPs legally binding instruments that must be integrated into master plans, development control regulations, and budgeting mechanisms. It also necessitates empowering municipal institutions with adequate capacity and resources, fostering interdepartmental coordination, and placing urban communities—particularly the most vulnerable—at the heart of climate planning.

India must also learn from successful global best practices of cities that have effectively established climate action plans and implementation mechanisms to achieve greater resilience to increasing climate threats and intensifying disasters and calamities. For example, Indian cities can implement Surabaya’s trash-for-ticket initiative to encourage greater use of public transport and improve air quality by curbing vehicular emissions.

Moreover, the climate crisis requires cities to confront hard political choices: capping construction, reclaiming lost open spaces, reversing sprawl, and rethinking urban growth models.

Ultimately, building climate-resilient cities in India is not just about preparing for disasters—it is about transforming cities into regenerative spaces that are ecologically sustainable, economically inclusive, and socially just. Without this transformation, India’s urban future risks building on the fault lines of its own contradictions.

Ramanath Jha is Distinguished Fellow at ORF.

Dhaval Desai is Vice President and Senior Fellow at ORF Mumbai.

Endnotes

(1) Indian Meteorological Department, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India, https://mausam.imd.gov.in/

(2) World Meteorological Organization, WMO, https://wmo.int/

(3) Mustafa Yahia, COP29 must deliver bold commitments to limit catastrophic climate impacts, London, International Institute for Environment and Development, 2024, https://www.iied.org/cop29-must-deliver-bold-commitments-limit-catastrophic-climate-impacts

(4) Indian Meteorological Department, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India, 2024, https://mausamjournal.imd.gov.in/

(5) Indian Meteorological Department, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India, 2024, https://mausamjournal.imd.gov.in/

(6) Indian Meteorological Department, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India, 2023

(7) “In 2013-2022, Over 800 Died Every Year On Average Due to Exposure to Cold,” The Wire, January 25, 2024, https://thewire.in/environment/over-800-died-every-year-average-exposure-to-the-cold

(8) “July 3 Was World’s Hottest Day, This June Warmest Ever in South Peninsular India Since 1901,” The Print, July 5, 2023, https://thewire.in/environment/july-3-world-hottest-day

(9) “Delhi shatters all-time high temperature record in India. What is the highest temperature recorded on Earth?,” The Economic Times, May 29, 2024, https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/what-is-the-highest-ever-temperature-recorded-in-india-and-the-world-will-2024-break-all-records/articleshow/110521140.cms?from=mdr

(10) Simrin Sirur, “Over 2,700 dies in 2022 due to extreme weather conditions – IMD’s state-wise annual climate report,” The Print, April 29, 2023, https://theprint.in/india/over-2700-died-in-2022-due-to-extreme-weather-conditions-imds-first-state-wise-annual-climate-report/1545967/

(11) Indian Meteorological Department, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India, 2024, https://mausamjournal.imd.gov.in/

(12) Shiny Varghese, “How urban expansion makes Delhi susceptible to flooding,” The Indian Express, July 02, 2024, https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/how-urban-expansion-makes-delhi-susceptible-to-flooding-9427017/

(13) Panna Chandra Nath and Aditya K. Joshi, “Drowning in Our Progress? Tackling the Growing Menace of Urban Floods in India,” Integrated Journal for Research in Arts and Humanities, 5(1), 24–29, (2025), https://doi.org/10.55544/ijrah.5.1.4

(14) Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India, “Unstarred Question No. 2532 – Deaths due to extreme weather events in the country,” December 11, 2024, https://sansad.in/getFile/loksabhaquestions/annex/183/AU2532_1PqEQM.pdf?source=pqals

(15) “How climate change impacts infrastructure: experts explain,” School of Civil Engineering, University of Sydney, November 27, 2019, https://www.sydney.edu.au/news-opinion/news/2019/11/27/how-climate-change-impacts-infrastructure—experts-explain.html

(16) Nasrin Sultana, “How climate change can impact GDP and jobs,” Forbes India, August 23, 2023, https://www.forbesindia.com/article/take-one-big-story-of-the-day/how-climate-change-can-impact-gdp-and-jobs/87673/1#:~:text=Climate%20change%20due%20

(17) Sultana, “How climate change can impact GDP and jobs”

(18) Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, Government of India, https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2010349

(19) National Institute of Urban Affairs, “Climate Action Plans,” https://niua.in/c-cube/climate-action-plans#:~:text=The%20City%20Climate%20Action%20Plans,the%20European%20Union%20(EU).

(20) Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation, “Mumbai Climate Action Plan,” 2022, https://mcap.mcgm.gov.in/

(21) Aditi Warrier, “Chennai’s Climate Action Plan Identifies the Risks for the City and Proposes Mitigations,” Open City, July 24, 2023, https://opencity.in/chennais-climate-action-risks-for-the-city-and-mitigations/#:~:text=The%20Plan%20also%20lists%20out,will%20require%20replacement%20by%202050

(22) Ramanath Jha, “Climate action plan and Indian cities,” Observer Research Foundation, June 9, 2023, https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/climate-action-plan-and-indian-cities

(23) Janak Parmar, “The role of central government in strengthening urban local self-governance,” Observer Research Foundation, October 22, 2024, https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/the-role-of-the-central-government-in-strengthening-urban-local-self-governance

(24) Jha, “Climate action plan and Indian cities”

(25) Tanmay Jain, “The State of Finances of Cities in India,” Impact and Policy Research Institute, May 23, 2022, https://www.impriindia.com/event-report/state-of-finances-of-cities/

(26) S N Murthy and D V Rao, “GST in the context of Urban Local Bodies (ULBs),” Centre For Good Governance, Hyderabad, (2020), https://www.cgg.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/GST-in-the-context-of-ULBs-June-2020.pdf

(27) Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, “Pathways For Mainstreaming Urban Climate Actions,” https://smartcities.gov.in/sites/default/files/2025-01/Pathways%20for%20Mainstreaming%20Urban%20Climate%20Actions.pdf

(28) Y K Puducheri et al., “Climate Considerations In City Plans,” National Institute of Urban Affairs, New Delhi, 2024, https://niua.in/c-cube/sites/all/themes/zap/pdf/Master_Plan%20_Publication_19_Climate_Considerations_in_City_Plans.pdf

(29) European Capacity Building Initiative, “Pocket guide to capacity building for climate change,” 2018, https://ecbi.org/publications/2018-edition-pocket-guide-capacity-building-climate-change

(30) Jha, “Climate action plan and Indian cities”

(31) CSE India, “Urban Storm water Management Potential and Challenges,” (Presentation, Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, August 24, 2023), https://cdn.cseindia.org/attachments/0.92090700_1693893028_dk_urban-stormwater-management.pdf

(32) Proshun Chakraborty, “NMC Flouts rule to cover nullah with slab, citizens favour move,” The Times of India, June 20, 2013, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nagpur/nmc-flouts-rule-to-cover-nullah-with-slab-citizens-favour-move/articleshow/20678795.cms

(33) “Affordable housing shortage to touch 312 lakh units by 2030: CII-Knight Frank report,” Hindustan Times, December 04, 2024, https://www.hindustantimes.com/real-estate/affordable-housing-shortage-to-touch-312-lakh-units-by-2030-cii-knight-frank-report-101733326113630.html

(34) Govindan Raveendran and Joann Vanek, “Informal Workers in India: A Statistical Profile,” Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing, New Delhi, 2020, https://www.wiego.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/WIEGO_Statistical_Brief_N24_India.pdf

(35) M. Ishtiyaq and Sunil Kumar, “Typology of Informal Settlements and Distribution of Slums in the NCT of Delhi,” Institute of Town Planners, July-September 2010, https://www.itpi.org.in/uploads/journalfiles/jul2_10.pdfRa

(36) Ramanath Jha, “Understanding and Tackling Urban Floods in India,” Observer Research Foundation, December 2023, https://www.orfonline.org/research/understanding-and-tackling-urban-floods-in-india#:~:text=Urban%20floods%20can%20be%20caused,of%20urbanisation%20in%20a%20country

(37) Ramanath Jha, “The Enduring Problem of Illegal Constructions in India’s Cities,” Observer Research Foundation, July 20, 2021, https://www.orfonline.org/research/the-enduring-problem-of-illegal-constructions-in-indias-cities#:~:text=Not%20all%20of%20these%20constructions,loss%20of%20lives%20and%20property.

(38) Priyanjali Narayan, “Bengaluru rallies to save green lung Cubbon Park from art complex,” The Times of India, March 3, 2025, https://www.indiatoday.in/cities/bengaluru/story/bengaluru-against-concrete-art-complex-in-cubbon-park-green-lung-heart-city-tech-hub-pollution-2688116-2025-03-03

(39) Ministry of Housing & Urban Affairs, Government of India, https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1813182#:~:text=The%20Urban%20Regional%20Development%20Plans,of%20open%20space%20per%20person.

(40) Diana Reckien et al., “How are cities planning to respond to climate change? Assessment of local climate plans from 885 cities in the EU-28,” Journal of Cleaner Production, Volume 191, 207-219, (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.03.220

(41) “Greater Manchester can be carbon neutral by 2038 – but we cannot do it alone,” Greater Manchester Combined Authority, December 9, 2024, https://www.greatermanchester-ca.gov.uk/news/greater-manchester-can-be-carbon-neutral-by-2038-but-we-cannot-do-it-alone/

(42) “Bristol Net Zero by 2030,” Centre for Sustainable Energy, https://www.cse.org.uk/research-consultancy/consultancy-projects/bristol-net-zero-by-2030/

(43) “Bristol City Council secure £1bn investment to help city become net zero,” Bristol City Council, December 7, 2022, https://news.bristol.gov.uk/press-releases/dfaed251-8275-4945-a874-a66bfb91d140/bristol-city-council-secure-1bn-investment-to-help-city-become-net-zero

(44) “Mayor Adams Releases ‘PLANYC: Getting Sustainability Done,’ In New York City,” Harlem World, April 27, 2023, https://www.harlemworldmagazine.com/mayor-adams-releases-planyc-getting-sustainability-done-in-new-york-city/?utm_source=chatgpt.com

(45) Vicki Cerullo, Q&A: NYC’s ‘Getting Sustainability Done’ action plan, Washington DC, World Bank Group, 2023, https://www.gihub.org/articles/qa-nyc-s-getting-sustainability-done-action-plan/?utm_source=chatgpt.com

(46) United Nations ESCAP, Surabaya City Profile, Indonesia, Bangkok, 2021, https://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/Closing%20the%20Loop%20-%20Surabaya%20City%20Profile.pdf

(47) Rita Ernawati, Happy Ratna Santosa, Purwanita Setijanti, “Community Initiatives in Developing Sustainable Settlements, Case Study Kampung in Surabaya Indonesia,” International Journal Of Engineering Research & Technology, Volume 03, Issue 06 (June 2014), https://www.ijert.org/community-initiatives-in-developing-sustainable-settlements-case-study-kampung-in-surabaya-indonesia

(48) Iim Halimatusa’diyah, Life After Risma Mayorship: Surabaya’s Performance on Environmental Issues, Leiden, International Institute for Asian Studies, 2024, https://www.iias.asia/the-newsletter/article/life-after-risma-mayorship-surabayas-performance-environmental-issues?utm_source=chatgpt.com

(49) United Nations One Planet Network, The Utilization of Plastic Bottle Waste as Payment for Public Buses in Surabaya, Indonesia, Nairobi, United Nations Environment Programme, 2024, https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/knowledge-centre/resources/utilization-plastic-bottle-waste-payment-public-buses-surabaya-indonesia

(50) United Nations Office of Disaster Risk Reduction, What is the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction?, UNDRR, Geneva, 2015, https://www.undrr.org/implementing-sendai-framework/what-sendai-framework

(51) UN-Habitat, New Urban Agenda, 2016, https://unhabitat.org/about-us/new-urban-agenda

(52) The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2023 Synthesis Report, IPCC, Geneva, 2023, https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/syr/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_SYR_LongerReport.pdf

4. Pathways for Climate-Resilient Water and Sanitation Services in India’s Small Cities

Aditi Dwivedi, Jigisha Jaiswal, Meera Mehta, and Dinesh Mehta

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change defines climate resilience as the ability to cope with hazardous events or trends while maintaining essential functions and having the capacity for adaptation, learning, and transformation. Further, it describes the concept of climate-resilient development as an approach that combines climate change adaptation and greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation options to support sustainable development (1). In its latest nationally determined contributions (2), India has announced enhanced targets for renewable energy deployment, carbon sinks, reduction in carbon emissions, and investments for adaptation.

Extreme weather events and resultant urban criticalities, such as heatwaves, water scarcity, erratic rains, and flooding, are reported regularly across many cities. However, the media and policy focus is confined to the large cities; for instance, floods in Bengaluru (3) or the ‘day zero’ water crisis in Chennai (4) are newsworthy, while the plight of small and medium towns, which are equally affected by climate change, goes unnoticed. Large cities like Mumbai (5), Chennai (6), Kolkata (7), Delhi (8), Ahmedabad (9), and Pune (10) have received support from international agencies to prepare climate action plans. In contrast, small and medium-sized towns, despite facing significant climate-related risks, have received limited attention. The disproportionate focus on large urban centres overlooks the fact that smaller towns are equally vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Notably, these towns also lack financial, institutional, and technical capacities to adapt (11).

National flagship programmes have expanded their scope to encompass all urban areas, providing small and medium-sized towns with an opportunity to enhance their infrastructure and services. However, despite India’s 74th Constitutional Amendment (1992) aiming to empower urban local bodies (ULBs), the small towns lack the decision-making power to undertake new infrastructure projects and are dependent on state agencies for the design and implementation of such projects. However, these agencies often fail to consult with small towns. In addition, responsibilities for urban services are typically spread across multiple agencies, including state departments, parastatals, and ULBs, making coordination and implementation challenging. City climate action plans generally focus more on the mobility, construction, and energy sectors while neglecting water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services, which are also significantly impacted by climate change. 

WASH is often seen as a development aspect separate from the climate or environmental agenda. However, it is equally vulnerable to the impacts of climate change; as such, mainstreaming WASH in climate action strategies can yield co-benefits that include both climate mitigation and adaptation. Disruptions in water supply and sanitation services caused by floods, droughts, and other extreme weather events adversely impact the urban population, particularly the impoverished. Improved access to well-designed WASH services for the urban poor can also help increase their resilience to extreme weather events and climate-related disease risks.

The enormous contribution of the WASH sector to GHG emissions also needs to be better assessed (12). Untreated wastewater and solid waste landfills are point sources for direct emissions of methane and nitrous oxide. The latest Indian GHG inventory also notes domestic wastewater as a major contributor to waste sector emissions (13). In addition, the water supply and sewage systems account for a significant portion of the total energy consumption of cities, contributing to indirect emissions. Studies suggest that water and wastewater services account for 50-70 percent of total energy consumption by ULBs (14).

This essay urges a paradigm shift in urban planning to align WASH with the climate agenda. It builds on the research and experiences of the Center for Water and Sanitation (CWAS) at the CEPT Development and Research Foundation of CEPT University, based on projects in small and medium towns in Gujarat and Maharashtra. These cities represent diverse geographic, climatic, institutional, and infrastructural challenges, which are representative of over 4,000 small and medium towns across India.

Avoiding Day Zero: Exploring Alternative Sources for Water Supply

Climate change impacts have pushed many cities across the world closer to a ‘day zero’ scenario (15), with water stress becoming a harsh reality. Cities must urgently secure and diversify their water sources to meet the growing demand for drinking water and build resilience against future shortages. In this situation, augmenting a city’s water resources through watershed management offers a chance to prioritise local water sources and lessen the reliance on water transported from distant locations (16). While cities increasingly recognise the need to augment water resources through rainwater harvesting and groundwater, their implementation and integration into policies, regulations, and bylaws need further attention.

The small towns of Anjar and Gandhidham, in Gujarat’s arid Kutch region, face severe drinking water shortages. Municipal water is supplied every three days. More recently, water through the Narmada canal has increased supply to these cities. However, it is not sufficient, and both cities continue to rely heavily on groundwater to meet the needs of their populations (17). Recognising this, CWAS undertook comprehensive geo-hydrological studies in both cities to assess aquifer characteristics and identify critical zones for groundwater recharge. This informed the design of locally relevant strategies, integrating both natural and engineered solutions to enhance recharge capacity. These approaches have supported augmenting water resources and helped in mitigating urban flooding (18). Effective water management requires active awareness and citizen participation, but there is often a disconnect between the citizens and water management authorities. As such, along with demonstration pilots for groundwater recharge and rooftop rainwater harvesting, efforts were also made to generate awareness among the community (19).

Local governments sell treated wastewater to industries, establishing a practice that many towns with nearby industries can replicate.

Through these efforts, Anjar and Gandhidham have become models for other small and medium towns in Gujarat under the ‘Catch the Rain’ campaign (20). Replicating their experiences in similar-sized towns across the country can help make them more water secure and climate resilient. 

Access to Services: Maintaining Essential Functions

Ensuring the provision and maintenance of essential services and functions are key measures of resilience (21). For cities to be more climate resilient, access to efficient urban services, such as water supply, sanitation, used water, and solid waste management, is crucial. While considerable investments have been made in these in recent decades, little is known about service levels, quality, and service coverage. The lack of reliable and updated information on these services often leads to the misallocation of resources. Such information gaps on service performance result in an undue focus on building new infrastructure without adequate improvement in service quality.

In the context of WASH, access to drinking water within premises, a toilet at home, and door-to-door solid waste collection significantly improves the ability to cope in times of climatic distress, such as extreme heatwaves, rainfall, or flood conditions. This was observed during the COVID-19 pandemic in Mumbai, for instance, where “the presence of overused and poorly maintained mega community toilets...[was] the ‘major reason’ for the explosion” of cases (22).

Access to Water: India’s AMRUT (Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation) scheme focuses on providing tap water in every household. Although there have been significant investments in creating related infrastructure, studies suggest that greater attention is needed for last-mile connectivity, particularly in underserved settlements (23). Households in such areas still depend on alternative water sources that may be unsafe. CWAS’s study captured both the challenges faced by local governments in 10 cities in Gujarat and Maharashtra in achieving the goal, as well as the successes in addressing these challenges (24). A critical hurdle was connecting trunk lines to underserved settlements due to legal barriers to land ownership. Most projects did not include the cost of laying internal networks in their budgets. For the urban poor, high connection charges, which are often equivalent to a family’s monthly income, become a barrier to getting formal connections to the municipal water supply (25). In some cities, the administrative processes to get a water connection were tedious, requiring multiple documentation proofs, written applications, and repeated visits by the applicant to multiple municipal departments. Such cumbersome processes were disadvantageous for those who needed these services the most.

An intersectional analysis revealed further layers of gender and social marginalities. In a family without access to water at home, the responsibility is primarily the women’s (due to traditional gender roles) to fetch water for the entire family from a nearby source. Similarly, the use of shared community toilets is disadvantageous to women who have additional concerns of security, privacy, and hygiene. Some city governments have recognised these challenges and implemented inclusive policies. For instance, the local government of Sangli-Miraj-Kupwad in Maharashtra implemented a nominal connection fee of ₹100 (US$1.16) under its ‘slum rehabilitation programme’. It funded the actual implementation costs through the Fourteenth Finance Commission grants (26) or the Ward Development Fund. Chandrapur in Maharashtra provided water connections with meters at no cost to all households, recovering the expense over several months as part of the water charge. A statewide policy in Gujarat fixed the water connection charge at ₹500 (US$5.82) for all cities. Many cities in both states have streamlined the processes by reducing the documents required for applying for water connections. Such initiatives by city governments have enabled increased access and extended city-level services for many vulnerable households and communities.

Access to Sanitation: Many barriers exist to constructing household-level toilets in India’s cities. Connecting the toilets to sewerage is often embroiled in issues related to land tenure. There are also financial constraints, as good-quality toilets with waste disposal facilities require more funds than what is available under government programmes, including the ‘Swachh Bharat Mission’. Another barrier, especially in the underserved settlements in big cities, is the lack of space in dwellings (27).

Some local governments and urban poor households have overcome some of these challenges innovatively. For instance, the sanitation credit initiative by Maharashtra’s Mahila Arthik Vikas Mahamandal (MAVIM),a women’s development organisation, is an example of improving toilet access by closing the financial gap. In Jalna city, MAVIM implemented a programme that linked women's self-help groups (SHGs) to commercial banks. Micro sanitation loans were disbursed to 250 women, helping cover the funding gap for their toilets. By linking the loan to SHGs, the beneficiaries could leverage lower interest rates and higher credibility for repayment (28). Similarly, organisations such as Water.org also report that 90 percent of the borrowers of their micro-loan products in India are women, and most households borrowing the loans have a family income of less than US$6.85 a day (29).

However, even if sufficient funds are available, families often cannot sacrifice essential living space for a toilet in many small- and medium-sized towns with dense low-income settlements. However, some households have overcome this by adapting the use of existing washing spaces, rooms, or passageways. In a survey of underserved settlement houses by CWAS, it was noted that the toilets covered an average of nine percent of the space, and even homes with a space of less than nine sq m had constructed toilets. This highlights the ingenuity of residents and the aspirational nature of access to sanitation, where communities are willing to compromise space to ensure dignity, safety, and convenience (30).

‘Climate Proofing’ WASH Infrastructure

To achieve climate-resilient WASH, resilience in the service chain's downstream and upstream parts needs to be improved (see Figure 1). In India’s small- and medium-sized towns, open drains are prevalent, and a significant portion of the population relies on onsite sanitation systems. Often, the supernatant from septic tanks flows into these open drains. In such situations, measures are necessary to prevent groundwater contamination and the spread of waterborne diseases. Local governments, as part of their regular pre-monsoon activities, conduct drain cleaning operations. Septic tanks, on the other hand, fall within the private domain, where irregular desludging performance deteriorates their performance and affects the effluent quality. The septage from overflowing septic tanks contaminates the surface and groundwater, eventually impacting the health of local populations (31). A CWAS field study in Wai, Maharashtra, which has implemented scheduled desludging of septic tanks, revealed a positive correlation between regular desludging, the performance of septic tanks, and the quality of drain and river water (32).

Figure 1: Water and Sanitation Service Chain

Source: Centre for Water and Sanitation (33)

City services must incorporate a regular desludging of septic tanks, as it addresses both adaptation and mitigation. Studies on methane emissions note that emission rates from septic tanks accumulating septage for more than five years are significantly higher than those between zero and five years (34). Other studies in Nepal (35) and Uganda (36) also suggest that GHG emissions from non-networked sanitation systems are substantial and addressing these can help achieve mitigation targets.

Safe treatment and disposal methods are equally critical. The Maharashtra government has scaled up the construction of faecal sludge treatment plants (FSTPs) in over 230 cities (37), reducing the unsafe and illegal dumping of sludge on land and in water bodies. The treatment plants utilise solar desiccation, gravity-based flows, and phytoremediation plants, which safeguard them from disruptions in energy, technical failures, and human resource inputs.

The city of Ichalkaranji in Maharashtra has ‘climate-proofed’ its new sewage treatment plant (STP) by building it on a raised platform so that it can function normally even if the site is flooded during the monsoon season (see Image 1). Ichalkaranji, Sinnar, Satara, and Karad cities reuse treated water to develop urban forests, showcasing the integration of the water sanitation sector in ‘greening’ efforts. These urban forests, located near the treatment plants, act as carbon sinks while also protecting the sanitation workers assigned to the sites from heat.

Image 1: (Top) Nature-based faecal sludge treatment plants at Vita and Satara; (Bottom L-R) Part of Raised Sewage Treatment Plant Under Construction in Ichalkaranji and Urban Garden and Forest with Faecal Sludge Treatment Plant in Sinnar

Several pictures of a plant AI-generated content may be incorrect.Source: Centre for Water and Sanitation (38)

Energy Transition and Efficiency in WASH Services

Although India has seen notable progress in the WASH sector in recent years, the sustainability of these achievements is at risk due to the frequent and widespread impacts of climate change across the country. Improving efficiency in WASH services will not only enhance the services but also ensure their continued functioning even during extreme climate events. Many studies have concluded that municipal WASH services are among the largest consumers of energy within local government operations, contributing significantly to GHG emissions (39) (40) (41). National estimates indicate that WASH services account for 30-60 percent of local governments’ energy costs (42).

Water abstraction, often from distant sources, is the most energy-intensive segment of the WASH service chain due to the requirements for pumping and associated transmission losses. Rising demand for water also leads to increased energy consumption. Therefore, working on both these aspects of water services efficiency and energy transition is crucial. Energy audits of WASH infrastructure in small and medium towns and large cities can pave the way for efficient and climate-resilient infrastructure.

Detailed energy audits in the towns of Vita, Karad, and Ichalkaranji, to reduce energy consumption per unit of product output and lower operating costs (43), helped identify issues such as poor pump efficiency (<50 percent), high non-revenue water losses, and the consequent high electricity expenditure. By replacing pumps and adopting power factor correction measures and renewable energy, these cities successfully reduced their electricity consumption while increasing the efficiency of water service delivery. Solar installations were implemented across water treatment plants, STPs, FSTPs, and solid waste management sites to further transition toward renewable energy in WASH services.

Centre-Staging WASH for Urban Climate Resilience

There is an urgent need to integrate WASH into urban planning pathways and city-level climate action plans. Integrating WASH as a core component of urban development planning is critical for climate-resilient cities. Small and medium-sized towns have often been off the radar of most policymakers and planners. However, many cities demonstrate that, with targeted assistance, they can make their WASH services climate-resilient, benefiting the city population and service providers.

The case studies discussed in this essay suggest that an urban planning focus on climate-resilient WASH, with public funds and projects, will help small and medium-sized towns contribute to India’s climate targets, and help achieve the Sustainable Development Goals and the Paris Climate Agreement goals. Furthermore, approaches using blended finance, climate funding, and other innovative financing mechanisms can be explored to support these towns in accelerating their improvement measures.

Policy and financing also require support through effective monitoring. The current climate programmes and reporting frameworks focus on targets for adaptation but do not elaborate on the actions required to achieve and sustain them. An apt parallel to this is the story of India’s WASH investment policies. In the 2000s, government flagship programmes such as the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission introduced considerable investments in building physical infrastructure. However, there was limited information on the impact on service delivery. The publication of service-level benchmarks as a requirement to access Finance Commission grants has provided a framework for monitoring service levels in Indian cities. CWAS has developed a monitoring framework for urban WASH services that covers over 800 cities (44). This information, focusing on coverage, efficiency, equity, and financial sustainability of WASH services, enables cities to allocate their resources appropriately. The climate agenda in India, while leveraging funds, also needs a paradigm shift with relevant monitoring frameworks.

Lastly, climate resilience will need to be institutionalised with regulations. Cities need to adopt measures, such as strict enforcement of bylaws related to ‘rooftop rainwater harvesting,’ coupled with incentives such as tax rebates, well-designed groundwater recharge plans, measures to ensure last-mile connectivity, and reductions in energy use. This will help them to achieve the goals of climate-resilient urban development.

Meera Mehta co-leads the Centre for Water and Sanitation (CWAS) as a Center Head at CRDF and is also Professor Emeritus at CEPT University.

Dinesh Mehta co-leads CWAS as a Center Head at CRDF and is also Professor Emeritus at CEPT University.

Aditi Dwivedi is a Programme Lead at CWAS-CRDF-CEPT University.

Jigisha Jaiswal is a Programme Lead at CWAS-CRDF-CEPT University.

Endnotes

(1) E.L.F Schipper, et al., “2022: Climate Resilient Development Pathways,” in Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, eds. D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama, H.-O. Pörtner, (Cambridge University Press, 2022), 2655–2807, https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter18.pdf

(2) Government of India, India’s Updated First Nationally Determined Contribution Under Paris Agreement (2021–2030), 2022, https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/NDC/2022-08/India%20Updated%20First%20Nationally%20Determined%20Contrib.pdf

(3) Preeti Tiwari, Anshu, Shreyash Dwivedi, and Sanjeet Kumar, “Increasing frequency of urban floods: Lessons from Bengaluru floods,” Vol. 12, Issue 01, (2023), https://nidm.gov.in/journal/PDF/Journal/NIDMJOURNAL_JanJun2023/NIDMJOURNAL_JanJun2023d.pdf

(4) Bhrigu Kalia, “Water Crisis in Cities: The Case of ‘Day Zero’ in Chennai, India,” (paper presented at the 2020 International Conference on Sustainable Development (ICSD), September 21–22, 2025), https://ic-sd.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Bhrigu-Kalia.pdf

(5) Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation, “Climate Action Plan,” https://mcap.mcgm.gov.in/

(6) Greater Chennai Corporation, Climate Action Plan Chennai, (Chennai: Greater Chennai Corporation, 2023), https://poovulagu.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Final-Chennai-CAP-English-Version_compressed.pdf

(7) Kolkata Municipal Corporation, “Climate Action Plan,” https://www.kolkataclimateactionplan.in/

(8) Government of NCT of Delhi, Delhi State Action Plan on Climate Change, (Delhi: Department of Environment, 2009), https://moef.gov.in/uploads/2017/08/Delhi-State-Action-Plan-on-Cimate-Change.pdf

(9) Government of Gujarat, Climate Change and Environment Action Plan, (Ahmedabad: Climate Change Department, 2022), https://shaktifoundation.in/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Full-Action-Plan-Ahmedabad.pdf

(10) Vasudha Foundation, Climate Change and Environment Action Plan – Pune District, Pune, Vasudha Foundation, 2022, https://shaktifoundation.in/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Full-Action-Plan-Ahmedabad.pdf

(11) Hartmut Fünfgeld, Fila Dennis, and Dahlmann Heindriken, “Upscaling Climate Change Adaptation in Small- and Medium-Sized Municipalities: Current Barriers and Future Potentials,” Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 61: 101263 (2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2023.101263

(12) Sumskrutha Shroff, Pratibha Caleb, Nikhil Kolsepatil, Prateek Mishra, Opportunities for Reduction of GHG Emission from Domestic Wastewater Treatment in Urban Areas: A brief orientation for decision-makers, GHG Platform-India and ICLEI, 2018, https://www.ghgplatform-india.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/GHGPI-PhaseIV-Briefing-Paper-on-Wastewater-Treatment-and-Mitigation-Potential-ICLEI-SA-Sep22.pdf

(13) Government of India, India: Fourth Biennial Update Report to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2024, https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/India%20BUR-4.pdf

(14) Kanagaraj Ganesan, Rajkumar Balasubramaniyan and Ankit Anand, Energy Efficient Water Supply System, Delhi: National Institute of Urban Affairs, 2021, https://niua.in/c-cube/sites/all/themes/zap/pdf/EEWATER-4.pdf

(15) Janez Sušnik, Mohammad Sadeq Ahmadi, William Veerbeek, and Chris Zevenbergen, “Towards a global Day Zero? Assessment of current and future water supply and demand in 12 rapidly developing megacities,” Sustainable Cities and Society, Volume 61 (2020), https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2210670720305163?via%3Dihub

(16) Center for Water and Sanitation (CWAS), Rethinking Urban Water Management: Lessons from Bhuj, Ahmedabad, Center for Water and Sanitation (CWAS), CEPT University, 2017, https://cwas.org.in/cwas-resources/rethinking-urban-water-management-lessons-from-bhuj

(17) Center for Water and Sanitation (CWAS), Water Secure and Climate Resilient Cities: Anjar and Gandhidham Citywide Assessment, Ahmedabad, CEPT University, 2024, https://cwas.org.in/cwas-resources/water-secure-and-climate-resilient-cities-anjar-and-gandhidham-citywide-assessment

(18) Center for Water and Sanitation, “Cities Water Assessment Slide Deck,” (presentation available on CWAS website), 2024, https://cwas.org.in/resources/file_manager/Water%20Security%20Assessment_Gandhidham.pdf

(19) Center for Water and Sanitation (CWAS), Innovative Approaches for Making Cities Water Secure in Arid Regions of Gujarat, Ahmedabad, Center for Water and Sanitation (CWAS), CEPT University, 2025, https://cwas.org.in/resources/file_manager/GSAC2025_T4.1(02)_Innovative%20approaches%20for%20making%20cities%20water%20secure%20in%20Arid%20Regions%20of%20Gujarat.pdf

(20) CMO Gujarat, Government of Gujarat, https://cmogujarat.gov.in/en/latest-news/catch-rain-sujalam-sufalam-jal-abhiyan-2.0

(21) E.L.F Schipper et al., “2022: Climate Resilient Development Pathways”

(22) Dhaval Desai, “Poor Sanitation in Mumbai’s Slums Is Compounding the COVID-19 Threat,” Observer Research Foundation, May 5, 2020, https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/poor-sanitation-in-mumbais-slums-is-compounding-the-covid-19-threat-66216

(23) Center for Water and Sanitation (CWAS), Advisory on Last Mile Connectivity for Urban Water Supply Services, Ahmedabad, CEPT University, 2024, https://cwas.org.in/resources/file_manager/Advisory%20on%20Last%20Mile%20Connectivity%20for%20urban%20water%20supply%20services.pdf

(24) Center for Water and Sanitation (CWAS), Last Mile Connectivity for Urban Water Supply Services: A Study Done for Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA), Ahmedabad, CEPT University, 2023, https://cwas.org.in/resources/file_manager/Last%20mile%20connectivity%20for%20urban%20water%20supply%20services.pdf

(25) WaterAid India, State of Urban Water Supply in India 2018, New Delhi, WaterAid India, 2018, https://www.wateraid.org/in/sites/g/files/jkxoof336/files/state-of-urban-water-supply.pdf

(26) “In India, the Finance Commission is appointed to devolve funds from a central pool to the state and local governments. These funds are often conditional, with mandates for spending only on activities specified by the Commission, such as water and sanitation.”

(27) Center for Water and Sanitation (CWAS), Reaching the Unserved: Access to Individual Household Toilets in Vulnerable Urban Areas, Ahmedabad, CEPT University, 2020, https://cwas.org.in/resources/file_manager/reaching_the_unserved_access_to_individual_households_toilets_in_vulnerable_urban_areas.pdf

(28) Center for Water and Sanitation (CWAS), Mobilizing Sanitation Credit through Urban SHGs: A Case of MAVIM, Maharashtra, Ahmedabad, CEPT University, 2018, https://cwas.org.in/resources/file_manager/mobilizing_sanitation_credit_through_urban_shgs_-_a_case_of_mavim,_maharashtra_12_dec_18.pdf

(29) Water.org, “WaterCredit Initiative: Small Loans, Big Impact,” 2025, https://water.org/solutions/watercredit/

(30) Center for Water and Sanitation (CWAS), Reaching the Unserved: Access to Individual Household Toilets in Vulnerable Urban Areas, Ahmedabad, CEPT University, 2020, https://cwas.org.in/resources/file_manager/reaching_the_unserved_access_to_individual_households_toilets_in_vulnerable_urban_areas.pdf

(31) Meera Mehta, Dinesh Mehta, and Upasana Yadav, “Citywide Inclusive Sanitation Through Scheduled Desludging Services: Emerging Experience From India,” Frontiers in Environmental Science, 7: Article 188 (2019), https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2019.00188

(32) Jigisha Jaiswal, Dinesh Mehta, and Meera Mehta, “Impacts of Scheduled Desludging on Quality of Water and Wastewater in Wai City, India,” Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science, 49(8): 2216–2229 (2022), https://doi.org/10.1177/23998083221078596

(33) Center for Water and Sanitation, “Cities Water Assessment Slide Deck,” (presentation available on CWAS website), 2024, https://cwas.org.in/resources/file_manager/Moving%20towards%20climate%20resilient%20WASH%20services.pdf

(34) Loi Tan Huynh, Harada Hidenori, Fuji Shigeo, and Nguyen Thi Lien, “Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Blackwater Septic Systems,” Environmental Science & Technology, 55 (2): 1060–1069 (2021), https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c03418

(35) Prativa Poudel, Prayon Joshi, Sarana Tuladhar, Anish Ghimire, Manish Baidya, Guy Howard, and Subodh Sharma, “Groundwater Implications on Methane Emission from Non-Sewered Sanitation Systems in Nepal,” Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 104: 107034 (2024), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2024.107034

(36) Jake Johnson, Fiona Zakaria, Allan G. Nkurunziza, Celia Way, Miller A. Camargo-Valero, and Barbara Evans, “Whole-system Analysis Reveals High Greenhouse-Gas Emissions from Citywide Sanitation in Kampala, Uganda,” Communications Earth & Environment, 3: Article 80 (2022), https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00413-w

(37) Center for Water and Sanitation (CWAS), Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Maharashtra, Ahmedabad, CEPT University, 2020, https://cwas.org.in/resources/file_manager/Faecal_Sludge_and_Septage_Management_in_Maharashtra.pdf

(38) Center for Water and Sanitation, “Cities Water Assessment Slide Deck,” (presentation available on CWAS website), 2024, https://cwas.org.in/resources/file_manager/Moving%20towards%20climate%20resilient%20WASH%20services.pdf

(39) Suresh Kumar Rohilla, Pradeep Kumar, Mahreen Matto, and Chhavi Sharda, Mainstreaming Energy Efficiency in Urban Water and Wastewater Management in the Wake of Climate Change, Centre for Science and Environment (2017), https://cdn.cseindia.org/attachments/0.73120800_1505297784_Policy-Paper-Mainstreaming-Energy-Efficiency-in-Urban-Water.pdf

(40) A. Escriva-Bou, J.R. Lund, and M. Pulido-Velazquez, “Saving Energy from Urban Water Demand Management,” Water Resources Research, 54(7): 4265–4276 (2018), https://doi.org/10.1029/2017WR021448

(41) Fiona Paton, Holger Maier and Graeme Dandy, “Including adaptation and mitigation responses to climate change in a multiobjective evolutionary algorithm framework for urban water supply systems incorporating GHG emissions,” Water Resources Research, 50 (2014), https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2013WR015195

(42) Kanagaraj et al., “Energy Efficient Water Supply System”

(43) Center for Water and Sanitation (CWAS), Preliminary Energy Audit Study for Vita, Karad, and Ichalkaranji, Ahmedabad, CEPT University, 2024, https://cwas.org.in/resources/file_manager/Preliminary%20energy%20audit%20study%20for%20Vita,%20Karad%20and%20Ichalkaranji.pdf

(44) Center for Water and Sanitation (CWAS), Fifteen Years of Performance Assessment System (PAS), Ahmedabad, CEPT University, 2025, https://cwas.org.in/cwas-resources/fifteen-years-of-performance-assessment-system-pas

5. Heat Adaptation through Sustainable Cooling and Passive Design

Krishna Vohra

As the world grapples with unprecedented heat waves and record-breaking temperatures (see Figure 1), the need for effective and sustainable heat adaptation strategies is more urgent than ever. Mostly confined to the various regions in the Global South for decades (1), scorching heat has now become a recurring phenomenon even in Europe (2), the United Kingdom (UK) (3), and the United States (US) (4). Rising temperatures, a consequence of climate change, have made sustainable cooling one of the most pressing needs of our time.

The predominance of vapour compression (VC) systems, which rely on hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), potent greenhouse gases with global warming potentials thousands of times higher than CO₂, has driven research into alternative technologies. While VC systems have become more energy-efficient, the increased demand could lead to higher overall emissions. Without a shift to truly sustainable technologies, humankind is in a self-perpetuating cycle that demands urgent intervention. At the same time, the next generation of cooling technology will undoubtedly prove costly and inaccessible for many, particularly the communities most vulnerable to excessive heat exposure.

Figure 1: Rising Global Average Temperatures Since 1880 (oC compared to the 1951-1981 average)

Source: NASA Space Observatory (5)

Limitations of Air Conditioners and Air Cooler Usage in India

Room air conditioners (ACs) are primarily used by the urban elite and remain inaccessible to those most affected by the scorching heat (6). Figures 2 and 3 illustrate this anomaly. Regardless of their efficiency, ACs are taxed at 28 percent under India’s goods and services tax regime, the highest possible slab reserved for luxury items. Reframing affordable and sustainable cooling as an essential need rather than a luxury will be a helpful starting point for advancing the shift toward climate-friendly cooling solutions.

Figure 2: Air Conditioner and Air Cooler Usage in India

Source: Author’s visualisation from data sourced from IndiaStat (7)

Only 4.9 percent of households in India possess an AC, while 14.1 percent have an air cooler, with vast disparities between states including those with excessive heat exposure (see Figure 2) (8). While the adoption of cooling appliances has risen in recent years, this could exacerbate the problem due to increased emissions. More recently, plans announced by the government to restrict AC temperatures between 20°C and 28°C aim to maximise energy efficiency among AC users in India (9). However, increased energy and financial savings from AC usage will, counterproductively, increase overall emissions due to greater and more prolonged usage.

Restoring Green Cover: Effective and Equitable Cooling

Many of India’s major cities have become heavily concretised to accommodate the increasing housing demand from rapidly growing populations. Rapid urbanisation has resulted in the marked depletion of green spaces across India’s densest cities. Deforestation and tree-felling in the big cities are deeply worrying patterns. Communities in densely populated, lower-income areas that have witnessed rapid and haphazard urbanisation have most acutely experienced this situation (10).

Despite urban pressures, certain areas in Delhi, such as Lutyens’ Delhi and parts of South Delhi, have retained significantly higher tree and park density, with over 20 percent green cover compared to about 2 percent in North and East Delhi (11). These greener zones benefit from historically protected avenues, institutional gardens, and rigorous street-tree maintenance, resulting in lower surface and ambient temperatures; studies show a cooling effect of up to 4°C during peak summer compared to adjacent, concretised neighbourhoods (12).

Similarly, the Mumbai Metropolitan Region saw a 59 percent increase in built-up area within 20 km of the city centre, with a concurrent loss of over 30 percent of urban greenery (13). The city’s low-income areas (such as in Sion, Dharavi, and Kurla) have seen tree cover shrink to less than one sq m per person, far below the nine sq m recommended by the World Health Organization (14).  In contrast, neighbourhoods bordering the Sanjay Gandhi National Park or well-maintained open spaces, such as Shivaji Park, exhibit surface temperature reductions of 2-3°C during heatwaves. However, recent reporting suggests that these efforts by the municipality have significantly reduced in recent years (15). Crucially, green cover in the most vulnerable and densely populated regions remains negligible, which creates inequity even in passive cooling.

The impact of declining green spaces is evident in many other Indian cities, such as Ahmedabad (16), Bengaluru (17), Jaipur (18), and Pune (19). City planners in India must prioritise greening projects, particularly in heavily concretised and underserved neighbourhoods, learning from the enduring successes of greener districts. The restoration and expansion of green spaces are vital passive cooling strategies that can provide relief to those in cities overwhelmed by concrete expansion and growing heat risks. Trees, parks, and vegetative corridors play a central role in counteracting the urban heat island effect by providing shade, enabling evapotranspiration, and moderating neighbourhood microclimates. These benefits are crucial for communities that lack access to air conditioning or other mechanical cooling. The socioeconomic disparities in access to green spaces and cover must be urgently addressed.

Actionable Urban Design Solutions

India has the highest population-weighted heat stress exposure levels (20). Cooling through VC remains largely out of reach for the majority, while also perpetuating the urban heat trap. Governments, urban planners, and architects must urgently shift towards passive design concepts to provide much-needed cooling without further exacerbating environmental damage.

India has a rich heritage of passive cooling, exemplified by traditional designs like baoris (stepwells), which ingeniously integrate water bodies and natural ventilation to lower ambient temperatures by up to 7°C (see Image 1). The stepwell features beautifully designed terraced steps on three sides, forming an inverted pyramid. The fourth side has a three-story pavilion adorned with elaborately carved windows, galleries, and balconies.

Image 1: The Chand Baori in Rajasthan

Source: Rajasthan Government (21)

Jaalis (lattice or screens) are another simple and effective passive cooling designs (22). Jaalis are intricately designed screens featuring geometrical openings that allow for airflow, sunlight filtration, and the Venturi effect (see Image 2) (23).

Image 2: The Jaali Cooling Method

Source: Parekh Collaborative (24)

An overhaul of construction practices to accommodate cohesive passive design will require a reconceptualisation of the Indian ‘smart city’. However, some passive design practices include simple interventions such as building thicker, insulated walls and ceilings rather than small spaces enclosed by glass panels that trap heat. Passive cooling solutions in urban planning can provide immediate relief to the communities that need it the most but will require targeted police incentives and financial investments.

The Future of Cooling Technology

Although there are policy efforts in India to encourage a shift to energy-efficient ACs, there must also be recognition that this will not alter the significant global warming potential (GWP) of these systems. The ubiquity of VC systems and air coolers, which rely on ozone-depleting refrigerants, is not a viable solution for long-term heat adaptation strategies. These not only contribute significantly to global warming but also remain inaccessible to the most vulnerable populations. Research shows that cooling demand increases exponentially as soon as the temperature crosses 27-28°C. Electricity demand increases by 190 MW for every 1°C rise in temperature. The current mainstream cooling technology accounts for 10 percent of global electricity usage, projected to double by 2050 (25).

While passive cooling is a necessary first step in any heat adaptation strategy, there is a need to shift to truly sustainable cooling technology to adapt to heatwaves. The Kigali Amendment’s fast-tracked plan to phase down HFCs (26), now endorsed by 155 countries, has the potential to avert up to 96 percent of projected emissions by 2050 (27). Adopting climate-friendly refrigerants such as R290 can eliminate ozone depletion risk and significantly lower GWP (28). However, the widespread adoption of these advanced technologies will be incredibly challenging in price-sensitive energy markets like India, unless financial support and targeted incentives are put in place to make them affordable.

Solid-state electrostatic or thermoelectric cooling is a breakthrough technology with minimal GWP. Furthermore, it demonstrates substantial efficiency gains while eliminating the use of refrigerants. Here, one n-type and one p-type semiconductor, electrically connected via soldered copper or metal interconnects, form a thermoelectric couple capable of cooling with an electrical input. This system enables the conversion of temperature differences into electrical energy (or vice versa) through the Seebeck effect (a temperature difference generates an electromotive force) and the Peltier effect (thermocouples create temperature differences) by running electricity through two different materials, causing one side to heat up while the other cools down.

Scaling this technology will be challenging, owing to the supply chain vulnerabilities involved with critical materials such as copper and bismuth telluride that are used in semiconductors. Potential investors may be reluctant to finance large-scale projects to manufacture such cooling systems. This is due to the inescapable exposure to the associated geopolitical risks of these materials, as their production and refining are concentrated in a few countries, such as China (29) and Chile (30).

Solar-driven adsorption chillers, already in use in parts of the United Arab Emirates (UAE), offer another pathway to a more sustainable solution. However, these are also vulnerable to supply chain dependencies stemming from critical minerals. Like many forms of green technology that rely on fragile supply chains, diversified funding sources and augmented domestic supply through strategic increases in circularity can also mitigate the risk.

The Role of Software and the Internet of Things

While the push to transition to truly sustainable cooling technology continues, India can still make strides in integrating software solutions and the internet of things (IoT) for passive cooling. As the hardware of VC systems becomes increasingly optimised for efficiency, there is a need for the basic operating software to be updated and keep pace. Studies have shown that IoT-enabled cooling systems can facilitate smarter, more efficient, and environmentally friendly building operations. These systems can achieve this by leveraging sensors, real-time data analytics, and remote controls to optimise energy use, maintain comfort, and reduce emissions (31).

IoT-based building management systems have demonstrated significant energy and environmental benefits, consuming, on average, 20 percent less energy per year and emitting 15 tons less CO₂ annually than non-IoT buildings (32). These systems also provide superior temperature stability (maintaining indoor temperatures within ±1°C of the setpoint, compared to ±3°C in conventional buildings) and keep humidity levels in the optimal 40-60 percent range, enhancing occupant comfort and health. Smart lighting and occupancy sensors can further reduce energy use during unoccupied periods by up to 30 percent. This would be a highly suitable solution to reduce emissions by cutting wasteful resource usage and improving energy efficiency in large-scale commercial and office buildings.

Software-driven optimisation is central to these gains. Advanced algorithms can schedule air conditioning loads to coincide with periods of renewable energy generation or lower electricity prices, resulting in up to 24 percent cost savings on peak temperature days (33). Even in buildings with lower insulation, IoT-enabled smart pre-cooling strategies can significantly reduce energy costs and improve efficiency.

Conclusion

The reliance on conventional air conditioning, while providing immediate relief, perpetuates a cycle of rising energy demand and greenhouse gas emissions. The AC solution is unsustainable in the long term as it exacerbates the root cause of rising temperatures. To break this cycle, passive cooling strategies centred around the restoration of green cover and more thoughtful urban planning can offer immediate, low-cost solutions that can be rapidly deployed, especially for vulnerable populations. Past strategies to increase green cover and passive cooling have been inequitable, often neglecting low-income areas. The need for green cover and passive cooling is most acutely felt by vulnerable communities, who often lack access to mechanical cooling technology.

Emerging technological solutions, such as solid-state cooling, natural refrigerants, and hybrid systems, are setting new standards for environmental performance and may capture a significant market share within the next decade (34). Making them accessible, however, hinges on policymakers and private players fulfilling their roles to maintain equity. The transition to climate-friendly refrigerants or thermoelectric cooling will be particularly challenging due to increased system and operational costs. As cooling demand continues to surge, prioritising renewables, low-impact designs, and scalable digital solutions will be essential for climate resilience and equitable access to comfort.

As temperatures continue to rise, this is the moment to revisit and rejuvenate India’s Cooling Action Plan (35), six years since its formal launch. Efforts to enhance energy efficiency are noticeable; however, this could exacerbate the problem due to increased adoption and usage, leading to higher emissions. India’s heat adaptation strategy must be multifaceted as the impacts of climate change become more severe. Importantly, this must involve a concerted effort towards reforestation, rejuvenation of and increasing green cover and water bodies within cities. If truly sustainable cooling technology is the solution of the future, passive cooling must be the remedy of the present, as it has so often been in the past.

Krishna Vohra is a Junior Fellow at ORF’s Centre for Economy and Growth.

Endnotes

(1) Lynée L. Turek-Hankins, et al., “Climate change adaptation to extreme heat: a global systematic review of implemented action,” Oxford Open Climate Change, Volume 1, Issue 1, (2021), https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfclm/kgab005

(2) Alind Chauhan, “How extreme heat has become Europe’s new climate reality,” The Indian Express, July 5, 2025, https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-climate/extreme-heat-europe-10108427/

(3) Damian Carrington, “‘Profound concern’ as scientists say extreme heat ‘now the norm’ in UK,” The Guardian, July 14, 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2025/jul/14/profound-concern-as-scientists-say-extreme-heat-now-the-norm-in-uk

(4) Edward Helmore, “Week of sweltering US heat – is this the new normal in a warming world?,” The Guardian, June 28, 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2025/jun/28/us-heatwave-climate-crisis

(5) NASA, “2022 Tied for Fifth Warmest Year on Record,” NASA Earth Observatory, https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/150828/2022-tied-for-fifth-warmest-year-on-record

(6) Lydia Powell, Akhilesh Sati, and Vinod Kumar Tomar, “Air-conditioner use in India: The cause of or the solution to a warmer world?,” Observer Research Foundation, December 4, 2023, https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/air-conditioner-use-in-india

(7) “State-wise Percentage of Households Reporting Possession of Air Conditioner and Air Cooler in Urban Areas of India (2020-2021),” Indiastat, 2022, https://www.indiastat.com/table/survey-on-drinking-water-sanitation-hygiene-and-housing-condition/state-wise-percentage-households-reporting-possess/1437200

(8) “State-wise Percentage of Households Reporting Possession of Air Conditioner and Air Cooler in India (2020-2021),” IndiaStat, 2021, https://www.indiastat.com/table/housing/state-wise-percentage-households-reporting-possess/1437205

(9) “New AC Temperature Rule in India: What It Is and Why Government Wants to Limit AC Cooling Between 20°C and 28°C,” The Times of India, June 12, 2025, http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/technology/tech-news/new-ac-temperature-rule-in-india-what-is-it-and-why-government-wants-to-limit-ac-cooling-between-20c-and-28c

(10) Sahana Goswami, Samrat Basak, Aakash Malik, Raj Bhagat Palanichamy, Urban Blue-Green Conundrum: A 10-City Study on the Impacts of Urbanization on Natural Infrastructure in India, Mumbai, WRI India, 2023, https://doi.org/10.46830/wriwp.19.00062

(11) “Uneven Spread of Parks in Delhi: 2.3K in South Delhi, 142 in North-east.” Hindustan Times, April 15, 2022, https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/delhi-news/uneven-spread-of-parks-in-delhi-2-3k-in-south-delhi-142-in-northeast-101660460363765.html

(12) Deepak Kumar Raj, “Understanding Delhi’s Vegetation Dynamics: A GIS and Climate Perspective," SATPALDA: Satellite Imagery and Geospatial Services, April 9, 2025, https://satpalda.com/understanding-delhis-vegetation-dynamics-a-gis-and-climate-perspective/

(13) WRI India, “Urban Blue-Green Conundrum”

(14) Nadja Kabisch, Michael Strohbach, Dagmar Haase, and Jakub Kronenberg, “Urban green space availability in European cities,” Ecological Indicators, 70 (2016): 586–596, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.02.029

(15) “BMC’s Green Drive Shrinks 73% in 2 Yrs; Only 72k Trees Planted in ’23-24,” The Times of India, September 14, 2024, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/bmcs-green-drive-shrinks-73-in-2-yrs-only-72k-trees-planted-in-23-24/articleshow/113354345.cms

(16) “12 years of green cover decline in Ahmedabad’s 12 wards, Vatva loses 41% of trees,” Gujarat Samachar, July 31, 2025, https://english.gujaratsamachar.com/news/gujarat/12-years-of-green-cover-decline-in-ahmedabads-12-wards-vatval-loses-41-per-cent-of-trees

(17) Sandhya Ramesh, “IISc study finds 93% of Bengaluru lost lake & forest cover since 1970s. How city can change its course,” The Print, March 20, 2024, https://theprint.in/science/iisc-study-finds-93-of-bengaluru-lost-lake-forest-cover-since-1970s-how-city-can-change-its-course/2006826/

(18) Pulkit Bhardwaj, “Jaipur forest to face bulldozers for tribal welfare: State govt's move to clear 100 acres of Dol Ka Baadh draws criticism; experts raise alarm over environmental impact” Bhaskar English, April 25, 2025, https://www.bhaskarenglish.in/local/rajasthan/news/cant-believe-forests-being-cut-for-tribal-welfare-in-jaipur-state-govts-move-to-clear-100-acres-ofdol-ka-baadhdraws-criticism-134905223.html

(19) Dipanita Nath and Ajay Jadhav, “Construction conundrum: Concerns rise in Pune as building boom depletes green heritage,” The Indian Express, March 8, 2025, https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/construction-conundrum-concerns-pune-building-boom-depletes-green-heritage-9875636/

(20) International Energy Agency, Sustainable, Affordable Cooling Can Save Tens of Thousands of Lives Each Year, France, International Energy Agency, 2023, https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/0691524e-7faa-4241-b002-055d4c0210ec/Sustainable,AffordableCoolingCanSaveTensofThousandsofLivesEachYear.pdf

(21) Government of Rajasthan, Tourism Department, https://www.tourism.rajasthan.gov.in/chand-baori.html

(22) Seralathan Sivasubramaniam, “The passive cooling effect of jaalis in buildings and their applicability over mechanical air conditioning,” (paper presented at the International Conference on Innovation and Emerging Technologies (ICIET) 2021, November 25–26, 2021), https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358742137_The_passive_cooling_effect_of_jaalis_in_buildings_and_their_applicability_over_mechanical_air_conditioning

(23) Lili Zhang, Tian Lei, Shen Qiong, Liu Fei, Li Haolin, Dong Zhuojun, Cheng Jingyue, Liu Haoru, and Wan Jiangjun, “Study on the Influence and Optimization of the Venturi Effect on the Natural Ventilation of Buildings in the Xichang Area,” Energies 14, no. 16: 5053 (2021), https://doi.org/10.3390/en14165053

(24) Parekh Collaborative, “Rambagh, Burhanpur,” Parekh Collaborative, https://parekhcollaborative.com/portfolio/rambaugh/

(25) International Energy Agency, “Weather for Energy Tracker,” https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/weather-for-energy-tracker

(26) United Nations Environment Programme, “About Montreal Protocol,” United Nations Environment Programme, https://www.unep.org/ozonaction/who-we-are/about-montreal-protocol

(27) Pallav Purohit, Lena Höglund-Isaksson, and Fabian Wagner, Impacts of the Kigali Amendment to Phase Down Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) in Asia: Assessment of Costs and Benefits, Laxenburg, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), 2018, https://pure.iiasa.ac.at/id/eprint/15274/1/Impacts%2520of%2520the%2520Kigali%2520Amendment.pdf

(28) Asian Development Bank Institute, “Sustainable Cooling: How to Cool the World Without Warming the Planet,” Tokyo, Asian Development Bank Institute, 2024, https://doi.org/10.56506/MAGR4101

(29) “Leading copper refineries worldwide in 2024, based on capacity,” Statista, October 25, 2024, https://www.statista.com/statistics/1180215/global-leading-copper-refineries-by-capacity/

(30) Ami C. Tolcin, “Mineral Commodity Summaries 2024: Bismuth,” US Geological Survey, January 2024, https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2024/mcs2024-bismuth.pdf

(31) Ahmed N.A.A. Hassan and Ibrahim K.Q. Farea, “The Role of IoT and Data Analytics in Enhancing Environmental Monitoring and Reducing Urban Energy Consumption,” International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology 12, no. 12 (2024), https://www.ijraset.com/research-paper/the-role-of-iot-and-data-analytics-in-enhancing-environmental-monitoring-and-reducing-urban-energy-consumption

(32) Pawan Whig, Pushan Kumar Dutta, and Pronaya Bhattacharya, “Leveraging IoT for Energy Efficiency and Environmental Performance in Smart Buildings,” (paper presented at the 3rd International Conference on Green Building, Civil Engineering and Smart City (GBCESC 2024), Kunming, China, 2025), https://www.atlantis-press.com/article/126011061.pdf

(33) Asleigh Philip, Shama Naz Islam, Nicholas Phillips, and Adnan Anwar, “Optimum Energy Management for Air Conditioners in IoT-Enabled Smart Home,” Sensors (Basel), 22(19), 7102 (2022), https://doi.org/10.3390/s22197102

(34) Michael Einstein, “Self-driving laboratories, advanced immunotherapies and five more technologies to watch in 2025,” Nature, January 20, 2025, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-025-00075-6; https://ceee.umd.edu/news/story/nature-names-sustainable-cooling-a-key-technology-to-watch-in-2025

(35) Ministry of Environment, Climate and Forest Change, Government of India, https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1805795

6. Passive Cooling: A Heat Resilience Strategy for Indian Cities

Kamal Kumar Murari

India’s rapid urbanisation is characterised by unplanned growth, land use change, traffic congestion, and mounting population pressure. Urban activities contribute to anthropogenic heat, primarily generated by transportation activities, industrial operations, and the release of waste heat due to the use of air conditioners (ACs) (1). The pattern of urbanisation has resulted in the urban heat island (UHI) effect, a phenomenon where urban spaces experience higher temperatures than surrounding areas (2). The impact of climate change and global warming has intensified heatwaves in Indian cities, particularly during the summer months (3). As Indian cities face increasing threats from rising temperatures, the increased frequency of heatwaves has highlighted the urgent need for implementing heat-resilient strategies.

A range of approaches, including urban planning, design interventions, and technological and infrastructure solutions (such as centralised cooling clusters, green infrastructure, and nature-based solutions), have been identified to address heat exposure in Indian cities (4). Passive cooling (PC) is one such intervention that can help individuals and communities develop heat resilience while promoting energy efficiency and energy savings (5). Indeed, PC methods are gaining attention worldwide for their environmental and socioeconomic benefits, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions (6).

However, despite its potential, PC remains underutilised in India’s urban policies and building regulations. Most existing city-level heat action plans (HAPs) and urban development strategies prioritise short-term emergency responses or a limited set of interventions, mainly focusing on cool roof construction methods, without adequately considering a broader spectrum of PC techniques, including material-based approaches to landscaping, in planning and regulatory frameworks. A key aspect of successfully promoting PC lies in identifying and implementing effective policy measures that support its integration into urban development frameworks.

This essay aims to present a comprehensive overview of PC principles, techniques, and global experiences, with a focus on India’s HAPs. It highlights the gaps, opportunities, and pathways to mainstream PC in India’s heat resilience, emphasising its role as a dual solution to manage heat stress and meet national energy and climate targets.

Passive Cooling: Principles and Techniques

PC is a set of techniques that keep indoor spaces cool by harnessing natural factors with minimal or no energy use. These techniques focus on natural energy flows, such as wind, radiation, and convection, without relying on mechanical systems (7). PC techniques are not new; they are widely seen in vernacular architecture, historical monuments, and traditional structures across India, designed to achieve indoor thermal comfort (8). PC techniques are broadly classified into three categories (9):

(i) Heat Protection Methods: These aim to block or minimise the amount of heat entering a building by optimising building orientation, incorporating shading devices, and planting trees to provide natural cover.

(ii) Heat Modulation Methods: These focus on controlling the amount of heat a building absorbs by using specific construction materials, such as stone or tile, as well as heat-insulating or reflective materials. A widely adopted example is the cool roof approach, which involves using light-coloured roofing materials or applying reflective coatings to reduce heat absorption and maintain lower indoor temperatures.

(iii) Heat Dissipation Methods: These facilitate the removal of excess heat from the building through optimising natural ventilation and installing evaporative cooling systems, such as wet walls and wet curtains, and the use of underground structures for heat exchange (10).

In the urban context, PC techniques refer to:

(i) Individual building-level strategies that relate to design changes, retrofitting, building materials, insulation, and exterior painting, and

(ii) neighbourhood or city-level strategies that primarily include green infrastructure, heat-resistant pavements, water bodies, and ventilated urban forms (11).

Benefits of Passive Cooling

There is extensive literature on the benefits of using various PC techniques to reduce indoor temperatures to achieve energy savings, as well as their suitability for different climatic conditions. Diverse PC methods applied in residential and commercial areas under varying climatic conditions reduce the indoor temperature by 5°C to 9°C less than the ambient temperature (12). For instance, the implementation of a combination of PC measures in a nineteenth-century building in the United Kingdom (UK) reduced the indoor temperature by 2°C to 4°C during summer heatwaves (13). A study conducted in cities worldwide revealed that the adoption of PC measures, particularly cool roofs, as a design scenario can help in reducing about 91 percent of the heat stress exposure in tropical areas (14). Another study on the effectiveness of PC interventions in disadvantaged communities in California, United States (US), identified how targeted passive solutions significantly enhanced indoor comfort and safety, especially during grid failures (15).  

A reduction in indoor temperatures not only increases the thermal comfort for inhabitants but also yields substantial energy savings. A review of multiple studies investigating the energy efficiency of PC measures revealed that the application of diverse PC approaches on buildings reduced the energy consumption from between 8 percent to 70 percent and achieved a life-cycle-based cost saving of 52 percent (16). Passive techniques, including insulation methods such as green and cool roof implementation at the city scale, led to substantial energy reductions (17). The large-scale implementation of these insulation methods can potentially reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (18).

In recognition of the importance of PC measures in enhancing heat resilience and climate action, the United Nations Environment Programme launched its Cool Coalition in coordination with government authorities, cities, businesses, and financial institutions worldwide (19). In India, the Cool Coalition advocates for PC measures as an ideal cooling intervention, and facilitates active partnerships with the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development (MoHUA) to deliver on-the-ground support and technical assistance to cities in tackling increasing heatwaves at the city, neighbourhood, building, and household levels (20).

Passive Cooling in Urban India: A Dual Response to Heat Stress and Climate Change

In India, integrating PC measures as a dual response to heat resilience strategies and climate action presents a valuable opportunity.

Before 2007, heatwaves did not feature on the priority list of India’s disaster management authority (21), despite instances of heat-related deaths in various parts of the country (for example, the 1998-99 heatwaves in Odisha resulted in over 2,000 deaths) (22). It was only in 2010, following the severe heat conditions, that Ahmedabad prepared India’s first HAP (23). The HAP detailed various measures on an immediate, short-term, and long-term basis to combat heatwaves. Notably, the Ahmedabad HAP promotes PC measures as a long-term strategy to reduce the impacts of extreme heat episodes in the city.

HAPs are gradually gaining recognition as essential policy tools at the state, district, and municipal levels. Recognising their importance, the Indian government issued the HAP preparation guidelines in 2019. Since then, 13 states and 19 districts have released HAPs. At the city level, eight cities, including Ahmedabad (24), Surat (25), Bhubaneswar (26), Rajkot (27), Jodhpur (28), Vadodara (29), Thane (30), and Delhi (31), have developed HAPs.

MoHUA’s urban cooling programme and the India Cooling Action Plan, released by the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, also promote the integration of PC  measures (32). The Action Plan is India’s first roadmap on cooling, and emphasises the importance of thermal comfort and energy-efficient cooling, including wide-ranging PC strategies. Further, cities such as Mumbai and Bengaluru, which do not have HAPs, have also advocated various PC measures in their climate action plans (33).

HAPs provide immediate guidance for responding to extreme heat events, often in the form of advisories and public awareness campaigns outlining dos and don’ts. Most city-level HAPs widely acknowledge cool roof strategies as a long-term solution to mitigate heatwaves. Ahmedabad’s HAP mandates cool roof interventions for all commercial and institutional buildings and proposes voluntary cool roof programmes for low-income housing (34). Other city-level HAPs also advocate for cool roof strategies, suggesting light and reflective roof painting, as well as the distribution of gunny bags for low-income tin roof housing.

In addition to cool roofs, HAPs also discuss the role of insulation, ventilation, shading, window blinds, measures of evaporative cooling through wetting walls, community shading, and heat-resistant pavements in combating extreme summer heat. However, apart from the cool roof strategy, HAPs do not adequately address the other vital PC measures.

Passive cooling as a strategy for climate action

India’s cooling requirements for both residential and commercial buildings are steadily increasing, with about 50 percent of all households projected to have ACs by 2050 (35). The need for urban cooling is likely to only increase in significance; at present, cooling demand contributes to about 45 percent of the total energy used in the building sector (this is close to 10 percent of the total energy supply), which is expected to rise sharply in the future (36).

Given this scenario, adopting wide-ranging PC measures can result in significant energy savings. Estimates suggest that integrating PC measures with other energy conservation schemes in the building sector can reduce electricity consumption to 1,170 kWh/household by 2050, which could otherwise increase to 2,750 kWh/household (37). Other modelling studies have also demonstrated that increased efficiency in India’s cooling sector can help significantly reduce GHG emissions from the building sector (38). Cities can achieve such high-efficiency pathways by implementing a combination of PC measures and efficient active energy systems. The upfront investment in these mixed approaches can be offset through reduced energy consumption and lower operational costs over the long term (39).

Financing Passive Cooling Solutions: Learnings from Global Best Practices

The availability of adequate funds is crucial to the success of HAPs. Most of the PC measures in the city-level HAPs are understood to be financed through a combination of public and private funding. The public finance component mainly includes budgetary allocations and subsidies. For example, the Cool Roof Programme for institutional buildings under Ahmedabad’s HAP has provisions for municipal budget allocation. On the other hand, corporate social responsibility (CSR) funds and philanthropy financed the city’s cool roof pilot programme for informal settlements (40).

Globally, cities have also utilised subsidies as an effective financial mechanism to promote PC measures. For example, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government provides subsidies for buildings that cover at least 50 square meters of their rooftops with a green roof or highly reflective paint (41). Tokyo demonstrates how PC techniques, including cool roofs, can effectively make a city heat-resistant. For example, solar-blocking paint on pavements and new buildings has contributed to a reduction in surface heat by up to 8°C (42). The city has also introduced innovative technologies, including ‘green air tech,’ which pushes cool air in a spiral pattern to the lower parts of buildings, reducing the energy required for cooling by up to 40 percent. Likewise, Chicago in the US has incentivised developers to integrate terrace gardens in building plans, adding 5.5 million square feet to the city’s green cover, and lowering roof temperatures by up to 4°C (43).

Mexico City has introduced alternative financing mechanisms, such as the Mexico City Climate Bond, to promote PC measures under its energy efficiency component (44). Statistical analysis has revealed that the installation of photovoltaic solar systems on roofs has led to a reduction of up to 15.3°C in peak indoor temperature and a 10-percentage point increase in thermal comfort rates for building occupants (45). Likewise, the UN Cool Coalition’s Cooler Finance report highlights the use of innovative finance mechanisms, including climate bonds, green bonds, and other climate-based financing mechanisms for financing PC measures (46). However, many of these possibilities are exploratory. Cities must assess their feasibility on a case-by-case basis.

Challenges and Policy Gaps

PC approaches range from simple methods rooted in traditional structures to technology-intensive methods that require design modifications, retrofitting, and changes to construction materials. Furthermore, PC approaches do not fit all conditions and vary with the climatological factors (47). Some PC techniques are easy to implement, while others have complicated and cost-intensive approaches (48), negative implications for the neighbourhood or at the local level (49), or require specialised design expertise and careful planning across various stages of execution (50). Additionally, retrofitting existing structures also poses difficulties, particularly in the absence of standardised benchmarks for comparison and inadequate training and capacity building (51). One of the main concerns regarding the acceptability of PC measures is related to convincing stakeholders, including residents and developers, who might express reluctance due to higher initial costs, knowledge gaps, technical complexities, and concerns over space utilisation. Cities can address these challenges by embedding PC measures into policy frameworks and action plans. There is considerable scope to mainstream PC strategies within broader instruments such as HAPs, urban development plans, building codes, and municipal bylaws.

The Way Forward

Stakeholders at all levels should consider the following policy directions to implement PC measures:

- Explore a broader range of PC approaches. Current policies disproportionately emphasise a narrow set of PC interventions, primarily cool roofs and urban greenery, and there is an urgent need to fund and scale dedicated research and development efforts to explore other PC approaches.

- Allocate targeted funding for comprehensive techno-economic assessments to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of diverse PC strategies. Such evidence is crucial for informing building codes, guiding incentive structures, and removing perceived financial barriers, particularly in resource-constrained settings.

- Mandate the revision of key regulatory instruments, such as the National Building Code,  Energy Conservation Building Code, and municipal bylaws, to explicitly integrate PC as a climate resilience strategy.

- Enhance HAPs with implementation roadmaps that include defined timelines and milestones, funding sources, institutional responsibilities, and technical standards for the deployment of PC measures.

- Implement capacity-building programmes involving urban planners, municipal engineers, and policy practitioners. Promote inter-agency coordination and technical training on PC strategies.

- Implement pilot projects on institutional campuses, housing townships, and large urban redevelopment sites to showcase practical and cost-effective PC interventions. Government buildings and large institutions can serve as living labs to showcase successful PC implementation. These projects can serve as training grounds for contractors, engineers, and officials while building public trust and satisfying market demand.

- Municipalities should set up dedicated units, jointly operated with academic institutions and civil society partners, to mobilise CSR, philanthropic, and green finance. These cells must develop evidence-based proposals to attract corporate and philanthropic funding.

- Promote market-led innovation through incubation, public, and startup grants. Focus on scalable and cost-effective products that cater to diverse building types, including retrofit solutions for the informal sector.

- Mandate that all real estate and institutional construction projects exceeding a specified size threshold include PC provisions. Tendering processes should assign specific weightage to PC strategies in contract evaluations.

Conclusion

PC offers a cost-effective, climate-sensitive, and inclusive pathway for enhancing urban heat resilience in India. PC techniques can significantly lower indoor temperatures, reduce energy demand, and contribute to national climate mitigation goals. Mainstreaming PC measures in urban planning is key to strengthening heat resilience in cities. While some measures, such as cool roofs, are gaining traction through HAPs, most PC techniques remain underrepresented in policies due to limited awareness, funding, and technical capacity. Most existing interventions are low scale, siloed, and reactive, lacking a comprehensive institutional and regulatory framework.

To mainstream PC, India must transition from ad-hoc experimentation to systemic implementation. This calls for embedding PC into national building codes, HAPs, urban development plans, and national cooling strategies. Dedicated financing, inter-agency coordination, public-private partnerships, and capacity building are essential to overcome technical and institutional inertia. Moreover, cities must invest in scalable pilot projects, local innovation ecosystems, and targeted support for vulnerable communities living in heat-stressed informal settlements.

As urban India prepares for a hotter, more climate-uncertain future, PC should no longer be treated as an optional add-on and must become central to how cities are designed, built, and inhabited.

Kamal Kumar Murari is an Assistant Professor, Centre for Climate Change and Sustainability Studies, School of Habitat Studies, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai.

Endnotes

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(2) Rajashree Kotharkar, Aparna Ramesh, and Anurag Bagade, “Urban Heat Island Studies in South Asia: A Critical Review,” Urban Climate 24 (2018): 1011–1026, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2017.12.006

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(4) Kenan Degirmenci, Kevin C. Desouza, Walter Fieuw, Richard T. Watson, and Tan Yigitcanlar, "Understanding Policy and Technology Responses in Mitigating Urban Heat Islands: A Literature Review and Directions for Future Research," Sustainable Cities and Society 70 (2021): 102873, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2021.102873

(5) Stephen Porritt, Li Shao, Paul Cropper, and Chris Goodier, “Adapting Dwellings for Heat Waves,” Sustainable Cities and Society, 1, no. 2 (2011): 81–90, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2011.02.004

(6) Kaiyu Sun, Wanni Zhang, Zhaoyun Zeng, Ronnen Levinson, Max Wei, and Tianzhen Hong, “Passive Cooling Designs to Improve Heat Resilience of Homes in Underserved and Vulnerable Communities,” Energy and Buildings, 252 (2021): 111383, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2021.111383

(7) Neha Gupta and Gopal N. Tiwari, “Review of Passive Heating/Cooling Systems of Buildings,” Energy Science & Engineering, 4, no. 5 (2016): 305–333, https://doi.org/10.1002/ese3.129

(8) Shyam Singh Chandel, Vandna Sharma, and Bhanu M. Marwah, “Review of Energy Efficient Features in Vernacular Architecture for Improving Indoor Thermal Comfort Conditions,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 65 (2016): 459–477, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.07.038

(9) Dnyandip K. Bhamare, Manish K. Rathod, and Jyotirmay Banerjee, “Passive Cooling Techniques for Buildings and Their Applicability in Different Climatic Zones—The State of the Art,” Energy and Buildings, 198 (2019): 467–490, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.06.023

(10) Mattheos Santamouris and Dionysia Kolokotsa, “Passive Cooling Dissipation Techniques for Buildings and Other Structures: The State of the Art,” Energy and Buildings, 57 (2013): 74–94, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2012.11.002

(11) Ayotunde Dawodu and Ali Cheshmehzangi, “Passive Cooling Energy Systems SWOT Analyses for Energy-use Reductions at Three Spatial Levels,” Energy Procedia, 105 (2017): 3411–3418, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2017.03.780

(12) Kaiyu Sun, Wanni Zhang, Zhaoyun Zeng, Ronnen Levinson, Max Wei, and Tianzhen Hong, “Passive Cooling Designs to Improve Heat Resilience of Homes in Underserved and Vulnerable Communities,” Energy and Buildings, 252 (2021): 111383, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2021.111383

(13) Stephen Porritt, Li Shao, Paul Cropper, and Chris Goodier, "Adapting dwellings for heat waves," Sustainable Cities and Society 1, no. 2 (2011): 81–90, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2011.02.004

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(16) Yan-ling Song, Kamyar Sheykhi Darani, Adnan I. Khdair, Ghaida Abu-Rumman, and Rasool Kalbasi, “A Review of Conventional Passive Cooling Methods Applicable to Arid and Warm Climates Considering Economic Cost and Efficiency Analysis in Resource-based Cities,” Energy Reports, 7 (2021): 2784–2820, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2021.04.056

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(20) United Nations Environment Programme, “Cool Coalition,” United Nations

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(23) Jeremy J. Hess et al., “Building Resilience to Climate Change: Pilot Evaluation of the Impact of India’s First Heat Action Plan on All‐Cause Mortality,” Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 2018, no. 1 (2018): 7973519, https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/7973519

(24) Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation, Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan: 2019 Update, Ahmedabad, 2019, https://www.nrdc.org/sites/default/files/ahmedabad-heat-action-plan-2019-update.pdf

(25) Surat Municipal Corporation, Surat Heat Wave Action Plan 2018, Surat, 2018, https://resiliencestrata.org/uploads/publication/1D97E6B4-57F2-4371-9DB7-7DF79D93BA21.pdf

(26) Bhubaneswar Municipal Corporation, Heat Wave Action Plan Bhubaneswar City, Bhubaneswar, 2020, https://climateandcities.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Bhubaneswar-Heat-Action-Plan.pdf

(27) Rajkot Municipal Corporation, Heat Wave Action Plan Rajkot City, Rajkot, 2020, https://ghhin.org/wp-content/uploads/Rajkot-Heat-Action-Plan.pdf

(28) Jodhpur Municipal Corporation, Jodhpur Heat Action Plan 2023, Jodhpur, 2023, https://www.nrdc.org/sites/default/files/2023-05/jodhpur-heat-action-plan-2023.pdf

(29) Vadodara Municipal Corporation, Heatwave Action Plan 2024, Vadodara, 2024, https://vmc.gov.in/pdf/Annoucement/2024/Heat%20Wave%20action%20Plan%202024%20-%20final%20(2).pdf

(30) Thane Municipal Corporation, Heat Action Plan for Thane City 2024, Thane, 2024, https://thanecity.gov.in/tmc/cache/1/26-Mar-24/EIP/EIP_PUBLIC_NOTICES/HOME_PAGE/1711434406698/Heat%20Action%20Plan.pdf

(31) Delhi Disaster Management Authority, Delhi Heat Action Plan 2024–25, Delhi, 2024, https://ddma.delhi.gov.in/sites/default/files/ddma/generic_multiple_files/final_hap_12.04.2024.pdf

(32) Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate Change, India Cooling Action Plan, New Delhi, Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate Change, 2019, https://ozonecell.nic.in/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/INDIA-COOLING-ACTION-PLAN-e-circulation-version080319.pdf

(33) Lubaina Rangwala, Shrimoyee Bhattacharya, and Jaya Dhindaw, “As heatwaves become more frequent, India’s action plans have crucial gaps,” Scroll, June 9, 2025, https://scroll.in/article/1082964/as-heatwaves-become-more-frequent-indias-action-plans-have-crucial-gaps

(34) Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation, Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan: 2019 Update, Ahmedabad, 2019, https://www.nrdc.org/sites/default/files/ahmedabad-heat-action-plan-2019-update.pdf

(35) Lucas Davis, Paul Gertler, Stephen Jarvis, and Catherine Wolfram, “Air Conditioning and Global Inequality,” Global Environmental Change, 69 (2021): 102299, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378021000789

(36) Saket Kumar Kirme and Vijay S. Kapse, “A Comprehensive Review of Residential Building Energy Efficiency Measures in India,” Energy and Buildings, (2024): 114537, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2024.114537

(37) Karthik Panchabikesan, Kumaresan Vellaisamy, and Velraj Ramalingam, “Passive Cooling Potential in Buildings Under Various Climatic Conditions in India,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 78 (2017): 1236–1252, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.030

(38) India Energy Transformation Platform, Developing Cost-Effective and Low-Carbon Options to meet India’s Space Cooling Demand in Urban Residential Buildings Through 2050, New Delhi, India Energy Transformation Platform, https://indiacoolingcoalition.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/IETP-TechReport_Space-Cooling.pdf

(39) India Energy Transformation Platform, Developing Cost-Effective and Low-Carbon Options to meet India’s Space Cooling Demand in Urban Residential Buildings Through 2050

(40) Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation, Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan: 2019 Update, Ahmedabad, 2019, https://www.nrdc.org/sites/default/files/ahmedabad-heat-action-plan-2019-update.pdf

(41) Gilberto Mejía Salazar, “Green Urban Planning in Tokyo: Managing Natural Spaces for Sustainable Development,” Japanese Society and Culture, 7 (2025): 10, https://gensoken.toyo.ac.jp/japanese-society-and-culture/vol7/iss/10/

(42) Huw Oliver, “Tokyo is Showing Other Cities How to Cool the Eff Down,” Timeout, November 8, 2021, https://www.timeout.com/news/tokyo-is-showing-other-cities-how-to-cool-the-eff-down-082321

(43) Oliver, “Tokyo is Showing Other Cities How to Cool the Eff Down”

(44) C40 Cities, Cities100: Mexico City - Green Bonds for Climate Action, Mexico City, C40 Cities, 2017, https://www.c40.org/case-studies/cities100-mexico-city-green-bonds-for-climate-action

(45) Juana Isabel Méndez, Cristopher Muñoz, Mariel Alfaro-Ponce, Emanuele Giorgi, and Therese Peffer, “Passive Thermal Enhancement of Composite Metallic Roofs Through Rooftop PV Integration: A Calibrated Case Study in Mexico,” Processes, 13(6), 1801 (2025), https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13061801

(46) International Finance Corporation, Cooler Finance Report, Washington DC, International Finance Corporation, World Bank Group, 2024, https://www.ifc.org/en/insights-reports/2024/mobilizing-investment-for-the-developing-world-s-sustainable-cooling-needs

(47) Mattheos Santamouris and Dionysia Kolokotsa, “Passive Cooling Dissipation Techniques for Buildings and Other Structures: The State of the Art,” Energy and Buildings, 57 (2013): 74–94, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2012.11.002

(48) Oliver, “Tokyo is Showing Other Cities How to Cool the Eff Down”

(49) Alex Nutkiewicz, Alessio Mastrucci, Narasimha D. Rao, and Rishee K. Jain, “Cool Roofs can Mitigate Cooling Energy Demand for Informal Settlement Dwellers,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 159 (2022): 112183, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112183

(50) Oliver, “Tokyo is Showing Other Cities How to Cool the Eff Down”

(51) Alex Nutkiewicz, Alessio Mastrucci, Narasimha D. Rao, and Rishee K. Jain, “Cool Roofs can Mitigate Cooling Energy Demand for Informal Settlement Dwellers,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 159 (2022): 112183, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112183

7. Building Climate-Resilient and Equitable Cities in the Global South

Dhaval Desai

Climate change poses an existential threat not only to natural ecosystems and biodiversity, but also to human well-being and urban sustainability. In its Sixth Assessment Synthesis Report, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change warns of a “rapidly closing window of opportunity” to safeguard a liveable and just future. It calls for urgent, coordinated action within this decade, emphasising that the decisions made today will influence the next millennium (1). This urgent call to action is particularly significant for developing nations, which must balance their enormous climate responsibilities while maintaining economic growth amid rapid urbanisation.

India is uniquely vulnerable in such a scenario. It ranks seventh on the Global Climate Risk Index (2) and is among the top three carbon-emitting nations, trailing only China and the United States (US) (3). Additionally, it experiences heatwaves, floods, and other extreme weather events with increasing frequency and intensity. The 2021 Lancet Countdown Report ranks India as first among five countries with the highest exposure of vulnerable populations (4), particularly infants and older adults, to extreme heat (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: Change in Person-Days of Heatwave Exposure Relative to the 1986–2005 Baseline

A: People younger than 1 year.

B: People older than 65 years.

The dotted line at 0 represents the Baseline.

Source: The Lancet (5)

Worldwide, approximately one in eight people, or more than one billion people, reside in informal urban settlements (6) with poor access to water and sanitation. By 2030, this is likely to double, with one in every four individuals projected to live in informal environments (7). In India, nearly half of the urban population resides in slums or unauthorised colonies (8). Built without formal planning, security of tenure, or guaranteed access to basic infrastructure and services, these communities face frequent displacement and eviction. Intensifying climate disasters are pushing such disadvantaged people deeper into precarity.

Floods and Climate Vulnerability

The frequency and severity of heavy rainfall and flash floods are escalating in India. According to the Central Water Commission data, floods claimed over 100,000 lives across the country and caused financial damages to houses, crops, and public utilities exceeding INR 3.6 trillion (~US$4.23 billion) between 1953 and 2017 (9).

Several other Global South cities have also experienced this phenomenon. For instance, Sub-Saharan cities like Accra (Ghana), Nairobi (Kenya), Mogadishu (Somalia), Lagos (Nigeria), and Lusaka (Zambia) experience recurring heavy rainfall and flash floods, causing infrastructure damage, mass displacement and deaths (10). In early May 2024, raging floods and landslides displaced over 70,000 people in Southern Brazil (11). About 200,000 people continued to remain displaced in Pakistan, even six months after the devastating floods in 2023 (12).

Floods not only claim human lives and destroy property but also disrupt access to clean water, health services, and mobility. Diseases such as malaria, dengue, and cholera often follow urban floods, particularly in densely populated informal settlements. Their aftermath also causes mass displacement and erosion of livelihoods (13). Without urgent interventions, future monsoons will bring even deadlier consequences.

Communities residing in informal settlements in flood-prone or low-lying areas are particularly vulnerable to the vagaries of nature. Their homes are often built from weak materials, lacking proper drainage and sanitation systems. These structural deficits, combined with their limited political visibility and voice, make recovery and resilience extremely difficult.

Against this backdrop, international best practices from the Netherlands and New York City offer valuable lessons for enhanced flood mitigation, resilience and recovery in Indian cities. These examples demonstrate how integrated infrastructure, policy, and community approaches can build resilience to flooding.

The Netherlands’ Room for the River and Climate-Adapted Urban Design

With more than a quarter of its landmass lying below the sea level, the Netherlands has a long history of flood risk management. With climate change causing sea-level rise and increasing rainfall, the country has adopted a transformative shift for its cities from merely defending against water to living with water. Its key flood mitigation measures include:

Resilient Rotterdam Strategy 2022-2027: Rotterdam, the major port city in South Holland, has become a global leader in climate-adaptive urban design, with reduced flood risk and co-benefits for public space and community engagement. The Resilient Rotterdam Strategy 2022-2027 outlines targeted interventions to enhance the city’s climate, ecological, energy, social, economic, digital, and institutional resilience (see Figure 2) (14).

Figure 2: Resilient Rotterdam Strategy’s Seven-Pronged Interventions

Source: Resilient Rotterdam Strategy 2022-2027 (15)

The strategy has expanded the scope of risk and vulnerability assessments beyond direct climate-related impacts, utilising reliable local data and evidence-based policy interventions to implement overarching resilience interventions. For example, it has broadened its scope from climate resilience to implementing integrated interventions that address Rotterdam’s biodiversity, enhance the renewable energy component in its energy basket, and encompass social, economic, and digital resilience indicators that account for the city’s poor and vulnerable populations.

Room for the River Programme: Introduced nationwide in 2007 following the unprecedented floods that displaced more than 200,000 people and over one million livestock in 1993 and 1995 from high discharge volumes of the Rhine and Meuse rivers (16), the Room for the River programme aimed at enlarging the floodplains’ carrying capacities. With a budget of €2.3 billion (~US$3 billion), the interventions involved relocating dikes, lowering floodplains, and creating spillways and retention basins (17). Its key outcomes included:

- Increase in floodplain capacity: The programme’s 30 nationwide interventions increased the floodplain capacity of the Rhine, Waal, Ijssel, and Meuse rivers by 4,400 hectares, lowering the flood peaks by about 0.3 metres (18). Increased floodplain capacity reduced river water levels during high discharge by nearly 14 inches, exceeding the initial target of 10 inches along the Waal at Nijmegen (19).

- Rotterdam’s Water Square: Designed as a multifunctional public space, the water square at Benthemplein, Rotterdam’s low-lying area, acts as a water retention basin during heavy rainfall (20). Financed through public-private partnerships that facilitate government funding and innovation subsidies to the tune of €350 million (~US$470 million), the water square can hold two million litres of rainwater, thereby increasing the city’s flood resilience (21). 

- Green Roofs: Rotterdam incentivised the installation of green roofs to absorb rainwater, reduce runoff, and mitigate urban heat. By 2020, the city had over 360,000 sq m of green roofs with water retention systems and solar panels, with a target to increase the green roof cover to 800,000 sq m by 2030 (22). Besides green roofs, Rotterdam has committed €233 million (~US$314 million) in seven large-scale urban greening projects at Court Square, Westblaak, Prince Alexander Square, Hofbogen Park, Nelson Mandela Park, Rijnhavenpark and Feyenoord Tidal Park (23).  The Hofbogen Park project will utilise an unused railway bridge to create a two-km-long green belt connecting Rotterdam with its surrounding countryside (24).

New York City’s Integrated Coastal Protection

In 2012, Hurricane Sandy ravaged New York, claiming 44 lives, damaging nearly 70,000 residential units, and inflicting an estimated US$19 billion economic loss (25). The low-lying Lower Manhattan area, inhabited by over 220,000 residents and home to a US$500 billion central business district, suffered the worst impact. The city responded by initiating mitigation measures under the Rebuild by Design (26) and OneNYC 2050 (27) strategies. These measures led to the following flood mitigation outcomes:

The BIG U Project: The Rebuild by Design initiative earmarked US$2.70 billion to launch the BIG U Project, which plans, designs, and implements the East Side Coastal Resiliency (ESCR) and Lower Manhattan Coastal Resilience (LMCR) projects. Started in 2020, with a completion target of 2026, ESCR aims to reduce coastal flood risk on Manhattan’s East Side area through an integrated 2.4-mile system of raised parklands, floodwalls, berms, and movable floodgates (28). LMCR, on the other hand, is comprised of four projects, including the Brooklyn Bridge Mongromery Coastal Resilience (BMCR), the Battery Coastal Resilience, the Battery Park City Resilience (BPCR), and the Financial District and Seaport Climate Resilience Master Plan. The BMCR and BPCR include elevating the wharf promenade by six feet, planting salt-tolerant trees, increasing drainage capacity, and installing permeable pavers to withstand future flooding from anticipated sea level rise to 2100 (29).

NYC Flood Hazard Mapper and Zoning Updates: Developed by the New York City Department of City Planning, the NYC Flood Hazard Mapper provides a comprehensive overview and monitoring of not only the current coastal flood hazards but also how flood threats are likely to intensify up to 2100 (30). The mapper guides climate-resilient construction in flood-prone areas, enabling informed decision-making by residents, property and business owners, architects, engineers, and policymakers. The mappers’ floodplain layers of the 2020s, 2050s, 2080s, and 2100 indicate the projected extent of flooding from a 0.2 percent to 1 percent annual sea level rise in each decade (see Figure 3).

Figure 3: A Snapshot of NYC Flood Hazard Mapper Indicating Future High Tides, and Floodplains’ Expanse in the 2050s and 2100

Source: NYC Flood Hazard Mapper (31)

Managed Retreat Programmes: Regarded as a ‘risk elimination’ strategy, New York’s Managed Retreat Programmes facilitated the acquisition of properties in low-lying and high-risk areas, converting the land into open and green spaces, restoring wetlands, natural sinks, and habitats for endangered species. Alongside other flood mitigation interventions targeting ‘resistance’ (construction of seawalls and levees) and ‘accommodation’ (elevated homes), the programme adopted ‘retreat’ as a solution, moving people and assets away from the risks, and creating more natural flood buffers. As of 2023, the Managed Retreat Programme acquired 1,289 properties through voluntary participation (32).

Figure 4: Adaptation Strategies for Flood Resilience

Source: One Earth (33)

These initiatives in the Netherlands and New York demonstrate how integrating hard engineering with green infrastructure and adaptive urban design backed by data-driven decision-making and real-time monitoring can foster multifunctional, people-oriented flood resilience, facilitating dynamic adaptation.

Heat Stress and the Urban Heat Island Effect

Heatwaves are increasingly becoming urban killers. Cities are heating faster due to the urban heat island (UHI) effect, a phenomenon where cities with dense construction, concrete surfaces, and reduced green cover experience higher temperatures than surrounding greener areas (34). Between 1981 and 2010, 10 percent of the earth’s surface area experienced scorching summers, a significant increase from 1 percent between 1951 and 1980 (35). This phenomenon is expected to continue expanding and intensifying in the future (36).

In Africa, Lagos (Nairobi) and Accra are facing amplified impacts of rising temperatures, with power outages during heat peaks exposing vulnerable communities to severe health and energy burdens for cooling (37). In Afghanistan, mean annual temperatures have increased by 1.8oC since 1951. The resulting water stress and groundwater depletion by ~30 metres has put Kabul, its capital city, at risk of “becoming the first modern capital to run out of water.” The shrinking of humanitarian aid following the return of the Taliban to power in 2021 has worsened the situation (38).

While hot summers have been a regular phenomenon across many regions in India, several parts, especially in the northwest, are witnessing abnormally high temperatures of up to 5oC (41oF) above normal, typically during March to June (39). Dense and poorly ventilated informal settlements, built primarily with heat-absorbing materials such as tin or asbestos, are especially vulnerable.

According to a recent study, more than 42 percent of the population in Greater Mumbai resides in informal settlements spread over just 7.3 percent of the city’s total land area of 600 sq km (40). Delhi’s National Capital Territory, on the other hand, has even denser informal settlements, with slum dwellers, who comprise 15 percent of the population, occupying less than 0.5 percent of the land (41). These cramped, overheated homes have severe health and productivity implications for the residents.

The issue compounds as India does not have an accurate idea of the deaths caused by heat-induced diseases. For example, there are vast variations in data from the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), and the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD). While the ministry pegged the heat-related death toll at 3,812 between 2015 and 2022, NCRB data put the death toll at 8,171. On the other hand, the IMD reported the fewest deaths, at 3,436 (42). Such anomalies make informed policymaking and interventions meaningless.

In such a scenario, best practices from Medellín, Colombia, and Freetown, Sierra Leone, offer valuable lessons for Indian cities.

Medellín’s Green Corridors Programme

Medellín, Colombia’s second-largest city, once infamous for high crime rates and lawlessness, has undergone a remarkable transformation to become a hub of innovative urban planning and social renewal. The city’s US$16.3 million Green Corridors Programme (Corredores Verdes), launched in 2016 (43), aims to improve air quality and reduce surface temperatures. It involves the comprehensive reforestation of 30 areas, including roads, riverbanks, and metro rail routes, with nearly 800,000 new trees, 2.5 million smaller plants, and over 5,000 sq m of vertical gardens on concrete walls, adding 65 hectares to the city’s green cover (44).

By 2019, Medellín’s green cover increased by 8 percent, reducing heat stress and providing cooling benefits to informal settlements near major transport routes. All the 30 intervention zones experienced a 4.5oC drop in surface temperatures, while the city became cooler by an average of 2oC. Bioclimatic studies have estimated an absorption of 160,787 kg of CO2 in just one corridor, with a 100-year projection of 2,308,505 kg of carbon sequestration resulting from the increased biomass (45).

A unique feature of these interventions was engaging local communities, especially from disadvantaged backgrounds, as ‘gardeners’. This participatory effort not only ensured sustained maintenance of the green corridors but also created numerous jobs for the city’s marginalised (46).

Medellín’s approach demonstrates how nature-based solutions, when embedded within urban planning, can mitigate the UHI effect while fostering inclusivity, employment, and ecological connectivity. The city received the Ashden Award for Cooling by Nature in 2019 (47).

Freetown’s ‘#FreetownTheTreeTown’ Campaign

Freetown, Sierra Leone’s capital, situated in a heavily forested mountainous region, faces acute climate risks, including heatwaves, landslides, deforestation, and erratic rainfall. The city’s rapid urbanisation has led to widespread tree loss and unregulated hillside development, intensifying the UHI effect. With a steady annual influx of over 100,000 migrants in search of employment, the city’s haphazard expansion has compromised its rich green cover. The resulting urban sprawl has caused the city to lose 12 percent of its total tree canopy between 2011 and 2018 (48).

The ‘#FreetownTheTreeTown’ campaign, launched in 2020, aims to plant and grow five million trees by 2030 (49) to enhance the city’s climate resilience and mitigate the UHI effect (50). The campaign combines digital innovation, community engagement, and ecological restoration.

In the first two years of its launch, Freetown planted 560,000 trees, restoring 578 hectares of its tree canopy (51). The trees contributed to the creation of shade, evapotranspiration, and improved air moisture. Areas with substantially restored tree cover reported lower surface temperatures, compared to adjoining built-up zones with minimal vegetation. The initiative also helped mitigate flood risk and reduce landslide vulnerability, which are exacerbated by UHI-induced soil erosion and the loss of natural cooling landscapes (52). Notably, the campaign helped Freetown create more than 1,000 diversified green jobs, with an employment ratio of 80 percent youth and 48 percent women (53).

The campaign’s community model is based on a unique government-people partnership, where communities and local authorities co-design and co-manage reforestation efforts. Residents decide on tree planting locations and receive money from the government to plant, grow, geotag, and digitally track the trees on a mobile TreeTracker app (see Figure 5) (54).

Figure 5: Neighbourhoods with Geotagged Trees in the Greater Freetown Area

Source: #FreetownTheTreeTown campaign (55)

The community verifies and documents each geotagged tree in exchange for e-payments every two years for the first five years, when the newly planted trees are most vulnerable to damage. The financial compensation is linked to continuous and honest tracking and monitoring. Local officials physically reevaluate the data to ensure transparency and accuracy.

Freetown’s model illustrates how local stewardship and community engagement can foster environmental restoration. In 2022, #FreetownTheTreetown campaign won the C40 Cities Bloomberg Philanthropies Award for Innovative Climate Solutions (56) in recognition of its bottom-up, inclusive UHI mitigation strategy, which can guide resource-constrained, high-risk cities in the Global South.

The experiences of Medellín and Freetown illustrate that urban heat mitigation is as much about social innovation as it is about ecological restoration.

Towards Climate-Resilient and Inclusive Urbanism

India’s cities are at a critical juncture, grappling with the dual pressures of rapid urbanisation and intensifying climate risks. These challenges disproportionately affect informal settlements, low-income groups, and marginalised communities, who often reside in the most hazard-prone areas with limited access to basic services. Traditional top-down planning models have proven inadequate in addressing the complexities of these layered vulnerabilities. India’s urban future demands a paradigm shift towards inclusive, decentralised, socially just, and climate-resilient urbanism. This requires lending a voice to the most affected, tapping into local and indigenous knowledge systems, and rethinking the delivery of essential services beyond the lens of legality or tenure. It also calls for operational reforms across infrastructure, governance, health, and housing, grounded in granular data, community participation, and climate science.

The following recommendations outline strategic and scalable recommendations to help cities move from reactive crisis response to anticipatory resilience-building, ensuring that no community is left behind in the pursuit of a safer, healthier, and more equitable urban future.

Establishing Real-Time Weather Warning Systems

Hyperlocal, real-time warning systems tailored to vulnerable communities can reduce casualties and damage. For instance, the Odisha State Disaster Management Authority successfully disseminated early warnings through WhatsApp and SMS alerts during Cyclone Fani (2019), contributing to record-low fatalities (57). Scaling such systems through partnerships with the meteorological departments, telecom providers, and local governments, complemented by regular drills and community training, can help strengthen climate resilience and disaster preparedness.

Building Ward-Level Climate-Safe Infrastructure

In low-income urban areas, lack of drainage, poorly built roads, and absence of storm shelters often intensify the impact of climate events. Resilient, climate-proof infrastructure, therefore, must include elevated, all-weather roads, designated evacuation corridors and multipurpose climate shelters with water, solar lighting, and gender-segregated living and sanitation facilities. Climate-resilient infrastructure must be a precondition for urban investment projects, with mandated resilience audits of critical ward-level infrastructure.

Developing National Heat Codes and Ward-Level Action Plans

With temperatures exceeding 45°C in many Indian cities, a comprehensive heat management framework is vital. The Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan (HAP) has shown how early warning systems, awareness campaigns, and inter-agency coordination can reduce mortality (58). Cities in emerging economies, including Dhaka (Bangladesh) (59), Karachi (Pakistan) (60), Lagos (61), Mexico City (Mexico) (62), São Paolo (Brazil) (63), and Manila (Philippines) (64) are also actively pursuing heat mitigation and adaptation strategies under their respective national policies and frameworks. Instituting a National Heat Code under the disaster response frameworks, with thresholds for emergency action and mandating all million-plus cities to prepare and fund decentralised, ward-level HAPs, can go a long way in mitigating the increasing UHI effect.

Preserving and Enhancing Green and Open Spaces

Urban India is fast losing its green cover. For example, Mumbai lost nearly 40 percent of its green cover while witnessing a 66 percent increase in its built-up area between 1991 and 2018 (65). Initiatives such as Delhi’s Ridge Restoration (66) and Miyawaki forests in Bengaluru (67) demonstrate the revival of urban ecology. Similarly, Durban’s eThekwini Municipality has a dedicated plan to establish green corridors and urban forests. Bangkok’s Green Bangkok 2030 initiative aims to increase per capita green space from 6.9 to 10 sq m, while Jakarta’s City Spatial Plan (2010-2030) mandates 30 percent of the city as a green open space.

Mandating ‘green-blue infrastructure plans’ in the long-term city master plans and offering incentives, such as property tax rebates, can encourage preservation and enhancement of urban green spaces, including green roofs, parks, urban forests, and wetlands, creating natural buffers against heat, flooding, and air pollution.

Expanding Affordable and Climate-Resilient Housing

Retrofitting homes with reflective roofing, natural ventilation, and disaster-resistant materials, such as compressed stabilised earth blocks, can make a significant difference. India’s traditional building architecture also offers valuable lessons (68). Similarly, Iran’s badgiri architecture, which passively cools building interiors by capturing and circulating wind, and qanats (underground channels that bring cool water from the hills to urban areas without evaporation) exemplify sustainable desert architecture (69). The incorporation of Incan stone architecture and terrace farming practices in Peru’s Cusco’s climate adaptation strategies have made buildings withstand seismic activity and regulate indoor temperatures (70). Likewise, in Porto-Novo, Benin, revisiting Afro-Brazilian and vernacular coastal architectural practices are helping buildings manage tropical heat while also offering flood resilience (71).

The governments must modify the national and regional building codes and guidelines to include climate-resilient materials and designs in all houses constructed under the scheme’s subsidies.

Promoting Inclusive Social Protection

Complex documentation and verification processes to access benefits under social protection schemes of the central and state governments often lead to the exclusion of vulnerable populations, including informal workers and migrants. Digital exclusion further hinders access to relief and entitlements. Initiatives such as the Delhi Construction Workers’ Welfare Board’s medical assistance and financial aid during emergencies (72) and Kerala’s poverty alleviation mission, Kudumbashree (73), offer scalable models. Social protection projects, such as UPPR and DSK-Shiree have similarly extended the social safety net to include the residents of informal settlements, offering asset transfers, microcredit, and improved sanitation and drainage (74).

Using ward-level data to identify coverage gaps, simplifying know-your-customer protocols, expanding outreach via anganwadis (rural childcare centres) and self-help groups in India and grassroots non-governmental and civil society organisations elsewhere, and linking climate shock responses to platforms like the state resident data hubs (75) can widen the net of social protection schemes.

Tracking and Reporting Climate Losses and Deaths

Systematic tracking of climate-related impacts is crucial for informed decision-making, effective risk mitigation, and accurate global reporting. Currently, India lacks a disaggregated national database for climate-induced losses, especially those affecting the urban poor. Bangladesh’s national disaster databases offer valuable lessons (76). Establishing a Climate Loss and Damage Registry at the national level, with integrated municipal data disaggregated by gender, age, caste, and income, can also inform just adaptation policies.

Tapping Into Local and Indigenous Knowledge

Top-down planning approaches often overlook the lived experiences and adaptive capacities of local communities. Indigenous and local knowledge systems, developed over centuries, contain rich insights into micro-climatic conditions, water management, biodiversity, and sustainable building techniques. For example, traditional water harvesting structures such as baolis and tankas (stepwells) in Rajasthan and Gujarat (77), or the Zabo system in Nagaland (78), offer climate-resilient solutions that remain relevant today.

Ecuador’s Quito, South Africa’s Durban, and Colombia’s Medellín have demonstrated the successful co-design and implementation of climate adaptation strategies with local communities and through consultation (79).

Indian cities must institutionalise community participation at the ward level, including civil society, youth representatives from informal settlements, and women’s self-help groups, to shape both planning and execution.

Conclusion

To build truly climate-resilient and inclusive urban futures, India must move beyond infrastructure-centric solutions and mainstream equity, local wisdom, and decentralised governance into urban resilience frameworks. It must learn from international best practices to mitigate and manage two of the biggest climate risks—flooding and the UHI effect.

This effort requires lending a voice to the most affected, tapping into local and indigenous knowledge systems, and rethinking the delivery of essential services beyond the lens of legality or tenure. It also calls for operational reforms across infrastructure, governance, health, and housing, grounded in granular disaggregated data and community participation. The implementation of these strategic and scalable recommendations can help cities in the Global South transition from reactive crisis response to anticipatory resilience-building, ensuring that no community is left behind in the pursuit of a safer, healthier, and more equitable urban future.

Dhaval Desai is Senior Fellow and Vice President at ORF Mumbai.

Endnotes

(1) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), AR6 Synthesis Report, Geneva, IPCC, 2023, https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/syr/resources/spm-headline-statements/

(2) Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI), India, Bonn, Climate Change Performance Index, 2024, https://ccpi.org/country/ind/

(3) Carbon Brief, The Carbon Brief Profile: India, London, Carbon Brief, 2019, https://www.carbonbrief.org/the-carbon-brief-profile-india/

(4) Marina Romanello et al., “The 2021 Report of the Lancet Countdown on Health and Climate Change: Code Red for a Healthy Future,” The Lancet, 398: 1619–62 (2021), https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(21)01787-6/fulltext

(5) “The 2021 Report of the Lancet Countdown on Health and Climate Change: Code Red for a Healthy Future”

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8. Gender-Sensitive Approaches to Disaster Management and Climate Adaptation

Mitali Nikore, Brinda Juneja, and Vandhana Ramesh

Climate change is not merely an environmental challenge but also a complex social phenomenon that impacts communities, manifesting through pre-existing social fault lines, particularly along vulnerability and gender dimensions. It reveals systemic inequalities that often remain invisible to policymakers and development practitioners. Therefore, India’s path towards climate resilience must fundamentally recognise and address these differential impacts, rather than treating climate change as a uniform challenge.

However, gender does not operate in isolation. Climate vulnerability is profoundly shaped by intersecting identities of caste, class, religion, age, and rural-urban location, creating disadvantages that amplify women’s exposure to climate risks. Women from marginalised castes face compounded disadvantages, as social discrimination limits their access to common property resources, such as water sources. At the same time, climate change further depletes these already scarce assets, deepening caste-based inequalities (1). Older women in rural areas face enhanced risks as reduced mobility limits their ability to evacuate during floods or extreme weather events (2).

On the other hand, younger women from lower-income households are often left behind when men migrate for work, increasing their exposure to climate-induced mental distress and economic precarity (3). Urban women belonging to lower-income households face distinct challenges where class and location intersect with gender. They often reside in flood-prone areas with inadequate infrastructure, lack formal employment protections during extreme weather events, and have limited social networks for support in adapting to climate change (4).

Evidence of gendered impacts reveals stark disparities in climate vulnerability. According to the UN Women Gender Snapshot 2024, by 2050, climate change may push up to 158 million more women and girls into poverty, 16 million more than men and boys. At present, 47.8 million more women face food insecurity and hunger than men, illustrating how climate-related shocks will further reinforce and exacerbate existing inequalities (5).

Climate-induced agricultural changes are producing a feminisation of farming that traps women in increasingly precarious livelihoods, without corresponding support systems. Climate variability is reshaping rural gender dynamics across India. As male migration increases due to crop failures and agricultural instability, women often inherit farms they cannot fully control because of limited land ownership rights or inadequate access to credit and technology (6). With up to 65 percent of India’s female workforce concentrated in the climate-vulnerable agricultural sector (7), this shift creates a perfect storm of vulnerability. Research suggests that even a 1°C increase in temperature raises daily water collection times by four minutes, making a cumulative burden that disproportionately affects women.

Moreover, climate impacts systematically expand women’s unpaid care work—an invisible economic loss that undermines both gender equality and climate resilience. As climate-related health issues, such as vector-borne diseases linked to changing precipitation patterns, increase, women shoulder added caregiving responsibilities. Concurrently, resource scarcity makes tasks like water collection and fuel gathering, traditionally women’s roles in many communities, more time-consuming. This deepens time poverty, limiting women’s opportunities for education, income generation, and participation in local climate planning (8).

Women’s concentration in climate-exposed industries, combined with existing employment barriers, creates a perfect vessel for economic marginalisation. Women engaged in construction, textiles, and agriculture face heightened occupational risks from extreme weather events, yet they have limited alternative opportunities due to mobility constraints, caregiving responsibilities, and skills gaps. Heat-intensive work environments pose additional challenges, as women tend to be more vulnerable to heat-related illnesses (9) while also having less access to adaptive technologies and protective equipment.

Climate adaptation policies that prioritise technological and infrastructural interventions, while neglecting entrenched gender barriers, risk exacerbating rather than alleviating employment disparities. Research by the United Nations Development Programme reveals that women in Maharashtra and Odisha face significantly more structural constraints than men in accessing non-farm income during climate crises, primarily due to caregiving burdens that limit their adaptive capacities (10). Moreover, women systematically encounter institutional barriers in securing post-disaster compensation due to the lack of documentation for asset ownership. They also face heightened security risks in inadequately designed relief shelters and suffer greater economic losses from male breadwinner mortality, given their limited employment opportunities (11).

In India, women hold only 11 percent of technical and leadership roles in major renewable energy enterprises (12). Similarly, disaster management committees across the country have minimal female representation. Consequently, decision-making processes often fail to consider gender-differentiated impacts. The South Asia Women’s Resilience Index and analyses by UN Women highlight that policy commitments regarding women’s involvement in climate governance often fail to translate into action (13). This underrepresentation leads to climate solutions that overlook the full range of community needs, thereby undermining resilience and perpetuating vulnerability.

Global and National Evidence for Gender-Responsive Climate Action

Emerging global evidence demonstrates that gender-responsive climate action is not merely a moral imperative but a pragmatic pathway to community resilience (14). The business case for gender inclusion in climate initiatives has grown increasingly persuasive. Cross-country studies demonstrate that integrating gender considerations leads to improved outcomes, making disaster response more effective, enhancing economic returns, and significantly strengthening community resilience. The following examples illustrate how addressing gender dimensions constitutes a foundational strategy for climate resilience, rather than an optional equity consideration.

Bangladesh’s evolution from being one of the world’s most climate-vulnerable nations to a recognised leader in resilience demonstrates how women’s participation can dramatically reduce disaster mortality (15). Historically, cyclone-related mortality rates in Bangladesh were significantly higher for women than for men, a pattern observed across many disaster-affected regions globally (16). Bangladesh’s achievement lies in transforming disaster response systems from male-dominated structures into women-led early warning networks. This institutional shift has been instrumental in reducing cyclone-related deaths since the catastrophic 1991 cyclone, which claimed over 138,000 lives (17). Initiatives such as women-operated solar-powered irrigation systems (18) and the comprehensive EmPower (19) programme have simultaneously enhanced climate resilience and generated economic opportunities.

Institutionalising gender mainstreaming through mandated budget allocations and structural reforms creates systemic change that extends beyond project-level interventions. The Philippines offers a compelling model, rooted in policy frameworks, dedicated budget provisions and operational reforms across government systems. This approach includes a mandatory five percent gender and development budget across departments, the appointment of gender focal points within disaster management agencies, and the integration of gender-responsive features into evacuation centres and recovery programmes (20).

Furthermore, the Philippines’ ‘National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan (NDRRMP) 2020–2030’ outlines specific gender mainstreaming targets backed by accountability mechanisms (21). Civil society coalitions such as the Women in Emergency Network (22), a collective of 30 organisations, have further advocated for gender-responsive disaster management.

Women-led grassroots initiatives also illustrate how locally driven solutions can shape and generate scalable models. Kenya’s Grassroots Organizations Operating Together in Sisterhood (GROOTS) approach and India’s Mahila Housing Trust are striking examples. Through their climate-smart agriculture project, GROOTS directly reached 1,250 women farmer households across the Busia, Laikipia, and Nakuru counties, with an indirect impact on 2,350 additional households, promoting Zai pits (a traditional agricultural method of creating small depressions in the soil to collect and store water to support agriculture in dry regions) and drip irrigation while pioneering community-based data collection (23). GROOTS also enabled participatory video extension with local farmers (primarily women), using videos featuring women champion farmers. This approach increased women’s awareness of climate-smart practices by 18.3 percent. Together, these grassroots-led initiatives reached over 3,600 farming families (24). 

India’s Mahila Housing Trust empowers women through collective action and technology incubation to develop locally relevant, pro-poor, gender-sensitive climate solutions. Trained as energy auditors, they promote efficient products and lead green energy distribution networks (25). Other interventions have improved water access, with over 60 percent of households reporting increased supply, and 32 percent achieving sufficient water during summers (26). To date, the Trust has trained more than 16,000 women as Climate Resilient Specialists (27).

Sneha Abhiyan, ActionAid’s innovative post-disaster response following the Odisha Super Cyclone (1999), is another example of collective action, aimed to protect vulnerable survivors from trafficking and exploitation. The programme established 35 mamta gruhas (abodes of love), community-based shelters providing comprehensive care to orphaned children, widows, and elderly survivors. The initiative directly supported 801 orphaned children, 638 widows and single women, and 209 elderly persons, while creating lasting women’s empowerment through economic collectives and leadership development in disaster-affected communities. It organised women in the affected area into self-help groups and provided them with livelihood support (28).

Developed economies are demonstrating how gender equality can be systematically embedded into climate policy through economic incentives and institutional reforms.

- Spain’s Just Transition Strategy provides a comprehensive framework for integrating gender considerations into climate policy. Its measures include gender clauses in public procurement, gender-disaggregated data collection and analysis, vocational training and employment support for women, and targeted promotion of female entrepreneurship in green sectors (29). The results underscore the effectiveness of this approach, as it has supported more than 300 businesses and helped create approximately 42 percent of the new jobs for women in transition-affected regions between 2019 and 2021 (30).

- The Netherlands’ water governance model emphasises structural reforms, including programmes for women water professionals and the implementation of dedicated gender equality policies within water governance institutions (31).

- Internationally, the Netherlands-supported delta and master planning efforts in countries such as Bangladesh and the Philippines are beginning to incorporate gender-inclusive practices. However, challenges persist in fully mainstreaming these approaches (32).

These models demonstrated that effective gender integration necessitates both robust policy frameworks and effective accountability mechanisms to achieve sustainable outcomes.

Recommendations for Gender-Inclusive Climate Resilience

Converting research into meaningful action extends beyond having access to quality data—it requires confronting entrenched systems that actively resist transformation. Powerful vested interests, institutionalised gender biases, and bureaucratic inertia frequently obstruct progress, underscoring India’s urgent need for comprehensive institutional reform rather than superficial adjustments.

The following evidence-based recommendations, drawing from international best practices, provide a strategic framework for integrating gender considerations into India’s climate resilience initiatives. Authentic gender-responsive climate action demands a fundamental reimagining of infrastructure development, decision-making processes, capacity building, community engagement strategies, and data collection and utilisation systems. Successful implementation will require sustained political will, adequate financial resources, and robust monitoring mechanisms that ensure institutional accountability and measurable progress toward gender-inclusive climate resilience.

Gender-Responsive Infrastructure Design

Gender-responsive infrastructure design is foundational to addressing the unique needs of women and enhancing community-wide resilience. Infrastructure shaped by women’s input tends to serve entire communities more effectively. Bangladesh’s cyclone shelter upgrades, which included features such as separate entrances and privacy partitions, led to significantly higher usage rates across all demographics. Similarly, elevated hand pumps in flood-prone areas address women’s safety concerns while also improving community water security.

Design features such as privacy screens, dedicated childcare spaces and menstrual hygiene facilities must be standard components of climate infrastructure, not optional additions. This approach acknowledges that well-designed infrastructure can meet the diverse needs and vulnerabilities present in any given community. Embedding gender-sensitive criteria from the planning stage, rather than post-construction retrofitting as an afterthought, is critical. Comprehensive infrastructure guidelines can mandate gender impact assessments for all climate-related construction and renovation initiatives.

Mandatory Gender Sensitisation and Institutional Reform

Gender sensitisation for officials may evolve from optional training into mandatory institutional transformation that reshapes climate planning processes. Concrete mechanisms for such transformation include standardised training modules, gender review committees and assessment frameworks that make gender considerations non-negotiable. Setting a minimum of 40 percent women’s representation in climate review committees will help ensure that diverse perspectives inform decision-making.

Gender-responsive budgeting could be integrated across all climate-related expenditures, supported by clear benchmarks and accountability structures. The broader goal must be to fundamentally alter institutional cultures so that gender perspectives become the norm rather than the exception. Achieving this transformation requires both attitudinal shifts among decision-makers and structural reforms that formalise gender analysis in planning processes. Performance evaluations for climate officials might include gender mainstreaming indicators to strengthen accountability.

International examples demonstrate successful implementation approaches. Sweden leads with 81 percent of its climate-related development finance reporting gender as an objective, following the introduction of a feminist foreign policy that sharply increased gender integration in climate finance (33). Indonesia pioneered gender-responsive budgeting in climate finance through regulatory mandates requiring all agencies to mainstream gender considerations. Its double-tagging system integrates gender and climate indicators into budgeting platforms, such as KRISNA, enabling ministries to monitor performance through clear benchmarks and accountability measures (34).

Comprehensive Capacity Building Beyond Technical Training

Capacity-building initiatives must move beyond technical instruction to tackle the structural barriers that inhibit women’s full participation. A multidimensional approach can include survival skills, leadership development, and the removal of logistical constraints that limit engagement. In India, the Mahila Housing Trust’s ‘climate saathis’ (friends) model empowers women as energy auditors, guiding households toward efficient use of lighting, cooling, and appliances, while fostering a women-led distribution network for sustainable off-grid solutions (35). This initiative supports women from the community to become climate knowledge leaders, offering a strong example of comprehensive empowerment (36).

Mobile-based learning platforms can reach women with limited mobility, while childcare support, transportation subsidies and flexible scheduling make participation feasible. Programmes must recognise that women need assistance in overcoming systemic constraints, not just climate-related knowledge. Effective capacity building also involves mentorship programmes that connect women leaders across sectors and regions. Training curricula must incorporate both scientific literacy and leadership training to cultivate holistic capabilities.

Institutionalising Women’s Leadership in Climate Governance

Transitioning from tokenistic representation to meaningful leadership requires institutional reform that grants women real influence and elevates traditional ecological knowledge. This involves establishing formal mechanisms, such as minimum representation thresholds (at least 33 percent), earmarked funding for women-led initiatives, and the structured incorporation of women’s perspectives into planning frameworks. Kenya’s model, which allocates dedicated funding for climate actions, particularly focusing on women-owned small and medium enterprises (37) and reaching at-risk groups, demonstrates how policy and finance can be effectively aligned.

In Armenia, strengthening women’s leadership in water management has improved access to drinking water, irrigation efficiency, and agricultural productivity, with women accounting for 80 percent of direct beneficiaries.

These examples emphasise why women must influence priorities, resource distribution and implementation pathways. Structures such as women-only consultative forums can generate independent recommendations before engaging in mixed-gender processes. Regular audits of governance systems can assess whether women’s inputs have a meaningful impact on outcomes.

Comprehensive Gender-Disaggregated Data Collection

Gender-disaggregated data is foundational for equitable and just climate response strategies.

Gender-disaggregated data equips policymakers to target interventions, monitor progress on gender outcomes and allocate resources more effectively. Without these data systems, even the most well-intentioned policies risk reinforcing gender disparities. Data protocols may include both quantitative indicators and qualitative insights that reflect women’s lived experiences of climate impacts. Community-led monitoring by women’s organisations can uncover hidden or underreported vulnerabilities.

Political Will and Systematic Implementation

Compelling evidence drawn from global experiences supports the moral imperative and practical necessity of gender-responsive climate action for India’s resilience. The approaches outlined, ranging from gender-responsive infrastructure and institutional reform to comprehensive disaggregated data systems, constitute a concrete roadmap for transforming India’s climate response.

Achieving impact demands committed implementation of these best practices, sustained by adequate resources and reinforced through robust accountability mechanisms. Without high-level political commitment, even the most well-designed frameworks may fail to deliver tangible change.

Conclusion

India stands at a pivotal moment where climate vulnerability and gender inequality intersect, necessitating urgent and coordinated action. Climate change exacerbates existing disparities, yet women often remain underrepresented in shaping responses. Gender-responsive climate action is not only ethical, but also essential for building resilient and inclusive societies, as demonstrated by countries such as Bangladesh, the Philippines, and Kenya.

A clear roadmap exists, including inclusive infrastructure, institutional reform, meaningful participation, disaggregated data, and capacity building, but real change goes further. It requires engaging men as allies, redistributing unpaid care responsibilities, and challenging the social norms that entrench inequality. Without these behavioural and structural shifts, gender mainstreaming risks becoming tokenistic rather than transformative.

Mitali Nikore is the Founder and Chief Economist of Nikore Associates.

Brinda Juneja is the Research Manager of Nikore Associates.

Vandhana Ramesh is the Assistant Research Manager of Nikore Associates.

Endnotes

(1) Rukmini S., “India’s Heat Action Plans Are Missing Caste, Income Vulnerabilities,” BehanBox, May 2, 2025, https://behanbox.com/2025/05/02/indias-heat-action-plans-are-missing-caste-income-vulnerabilities/

(2) National Centre for Disease Control, Training Manual: Vulnerable Population – Women & Elderly, New Delhi, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, 2025, https://ncdc.mohfw.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/4-Training-Manual-Vulnerable-Population-Women-Elderly.pdf

(3) Daneshvar Rouhani, Agrarian Stress and Climate Change in the Eastern Gangetic Plains, Birmingham, University of Birmingham, 2022, https://research.birmingham.ac.uk/en/publications/agrarian-stress-and-climate-change-in-the-eastern-gangetic-plains

(4) Climate and Development Knowledge Network (CDKN) and UN Women, Gender Equality and Climate Change: Enhancing Climate Action through Gender Equality in India, New Delhi, CDKN & UN Women, 2021, https://wrd.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2021-11/CDKN_India-Gender_report_WEB.pdf

(5) UN Women, Explainer: How Gender Inequality and Climate Change Are Interconnected, 2022, https://www.unwomen.org/en/news-stories/explainer/2022/02/explainer-how-gender-inequality-and-climate-change-are-interconnected

(6) Farhana Sultana, “Climate Change, Gender, and Vulnerability: A Feminist Political Ecology Perspective,” Gender, Place & Culture, 32, no. 4 (2025): 567–84, https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2025.2468178

(7) Press Trust of India, “Women Constitute 64.4% of India’s Agricultural Workforce: Report,” Business Standard, March 21, 2025, https://www.business-standard.com/industry/agriculture/women-constitute-64-4-of-india-s-agricultural-workforce-report-125032101044_1.html

(8) Fran Ziska Deininger, Andrea Woodhouse, Anne T. Kuriakose, Ana Gren, and Sundas Liaqat, Placing Gender Equality at the Center of Climate Action, Washington DC, World Bank Group, 2023, https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099718102062367591/pdf/IDU08c737dd00f8580412b0aed90fce874ab09b0.pdf

(9) Ella Jisun Kim, comment on “Heat and Gender: Enhancing Her Resilience to Rising Temperatures,” World Bank Blogs, July 30, 2024, https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/endpovertyinsouthasia/heat-and-gender—enhancing-her-resilience-to-rising-temperatures (accessed July 2, 2025)

(10) Kanika Mahajan, Blame it on the Rain: Gender-differentiated Impacts of Drought on Agricultural Wage and Work in India, New York, United Nations Development Programme, 2014, https://www.undp.org/asia-pacific/publications/blame-it-rain-gender-differentiated-impacts-drought-agricultural-wage-and-work-india

(11) Sanskrita Bharadwaj, “In One of the Worst Flood-Affected Regions of India, Women Lack Access to Basic Resources,” Missing Perspectives, October 2, 2024, https://missingperspectives.com/posts/in-one-of-the-worst-flood-affected-regions-of-india-2c-women-lack-access-to-basic-resources/

(12) ActionAid Australia, The South Asia Women’s Resilience Index, November 23, 2018, https://actionaid.org.au/resources/the-south-asia-womens-resilience-index/

(13) World Bank, Improving Women’s Odds in Disasters, Washington DC, December 12, 2013, https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2013/12/12/improving-women-disasters

(14) Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Gender Responsive Climate Action, United Nations, https://www.ohchr.org/en/climate-change/gender-responsive-climate-action

(15) Priya Sharma et al., “Gender and Climate Change: A Systematic Review,” Journal of Environmental Studies, 45, no. 2 (2023): 123–135, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9280069/

(16) Parvez Uddin Chowdhary, “The scars of the 1991 cyclone remain, so do the coastal communities' vulnerabilities,” The Daily Star, April 29, 2025, https://www.thedailystar.net/opinion/views/news/the-scars-the-1991-cyclone-remain-so-do-the-coastal-communities-vulnerabilities-3882946

(17) International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Solar-powered Irrigation: Empowering Bangladesh’s Women Farmers?, December 17, 2024, https://www.iwmi.org/news/solar-powered-irrigation-empowering-bangladeshs-women-farmers/

(18) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), EmPower: Women for Climate-Resilient Societies, https://www.unep.org/topics/energy/renewable-energy/empowerwomen-climate-resilient-societies

(19) Philippine Commission on Women, FY 2023 GAD Budget Report, Manila, 2024, https://drive.google.com/file/d/1gllvr7lxT9y_kiBeui38YYCRZqiDBexQ/view

(20) Office of Civil Defence, National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan 2020–2030, Quezon, Government of the Philippines, 2020, https://ndrrmc.gov.ph/attachments/article/4147/NDRRMP-Pre-Publication-Copy-v2.pdf

(21) UN Women, “Ensuring Gender-Responsive Disaster Risk Reduction – Good Practices from ASEAN,” New York, 2022, https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Good-Practices-from-ASEAN-on-Ensuring-Gender-Responsive-Disaster-Risk-Reduction.pdf

(22) GROOTS Kenya, “Reaching Smallholder Women with Information Services and Resilience Strategies to Respond to Climate Change,” https://grootskenya.org/project/reaching-smallholder-women-with-information-services-and-resilience-strategies-to-respond-to-climate-change-2/

(23) Michael K. Ndegwa, Claudia Ringler, Francisca N. Muteti, Edward Kato, and Elizabeth Bryan, “Can Participatory Video-Based Extension Increase Awareness and Knowledge of Climate Adaptation Practices? Insights from Rural Kenya,” in Reaching Smallholder Women with Information Services and Resilience Strategies to Respond to Climate Change, GROOTS Kenya, March 2025, https://grootskenya.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Reaching-Smallholder-Women-with-Information-Services-and-Resilience-Strategies-to-Respond-to-Climate-Change.pdf

(24) UNFCCC, “Women’s Action Towards Climate Resilience for Urban Poor in South Asia,” https://unfccc.int/climate-action/momentum-for-change/women-for-results/mahila-housing-trust

(25) Mahila Housing Trust, “Building Climate Resilience and Energy Efficiency,” https://www.mahilahousingtrust.org/practice-areas/building-climate-resilience-and-energy-efficiency/

(26) Inter-Agency Group Odisha and Odisha State Disaster Management Authority, Prayas (Strengthening Participation of Women in Disaster Management), Odisha, 2016, https://reliefweb.int/report/india/prayas-innovations-and-learnings-csos-drr-volume-1

(27) International Labour Organization (ILO), Gender Equality and Green Jobs, 2023, https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_emp/@emp_ent/documents/publication/wcms_860569.pdf

(28) European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE), The 2020–2024 Just Transition Strategy – Spain’s Path to a Gender-Equitable Green Transition, https://eige.europa.eu/gender-mainstreaming/good-practices/2020-2024-just-transition-strategy-spains-path-gender-equitable-green-transition

(29) “Research with Gender Perspective Helps Our Understanding of Why Water Cooperation Succeeds or Not,” Smart Water Magazine, 2024, https://smartwatermagazine.com/news/ihe-delft/research-gender-perspective-helps-our-understanding-why-water-cooperation-succeeds-or-not

(30) “The Importance of a Gender Perspective in Dutch Water Policies,” Both ENDS, 2021, https://www.bothends.org/en/Whats-new/News/The-importance-of-a-gender-perspective-in-Dutch-water-policies/

(31) DCA Actalliance, Climate Justice: From Words to Action: Lessons From Nordic Efforts to Integrate Gender Equality in Climate Finance, Geneva/Oslo, November 2021, https://actalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/Climate_FromWordToAction-final.pdf

(32) “Gender in Climate Finance Frameworks and NDCs,” (presentation, Gender-Responsive Climate Finance, UNFCCC, Bonn, February 2021), https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/UNFCCC-%20Gender-Responsive%20Climate%20Finance.pdf

(33) Sustainable Energy for All (SE4All), “Chilling Prospects: The Impact of Climate Saathis in India’s Urban Slums,” https://www.seforall.org/data-stories/impact-of-climate-saathis-in-indias-urban-slums

(34) Bijal Brahmbhatt, comment on “Women Emerging as Leaders in Fixing India’s Slums,” Mahila Housing Trust Blog, January 9, 2020, https://www.mahilahousingtrust.org/women-emerging-as-leaders-in-fixing-indias-slums/ (accessed July 2, 2025)

(35) “KCB Bank Secures $100 Million from BII to Boost Climate and Women-Led Business Financing,” Empower Africa, February 25, 2025, https://empowerafrica.com/kcb-bank-secures-100-million-from-bii-to-boost-climate-and-women-led-business-financing/

(36) Margaret Arnold and Nicholas Soikan, comment on “Kenya Moves to Locally Led Climate Action,” World Bank Blogs, October 27, 2021, https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/nasikiliza/kenya-moves-locally-led-climate-action (accessed July 2, 2025)

(37) Annemeik Jenniskens, “With Women, Better Results in Water Management,” Women for Water Partnerships, https://edepot.wur.nl/585386

9.Climate Justice and Inclusive Urban Resilience: Addressing Historical Emissions and Their Unequal Impacts

Meghna Verma

Climate change is exacerbating global crises such as rising sea levels, extreme weather, food insecurity, and forced migration. Its origins and impacts are acutely unequal. Developed economies have contributed disproportionately to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions through centuries of industrialisation and high consumption. Conversely, despite their minimal historical emissions, developing economies bear the brunt of climate-induced disasters. Within these nations, marginalised communities, mainly women and people with disabilities, face heightened vulnerabilities. This essay examines the historical responsibilities of developed countries and the resulting challenges for developing nations and proposes inclusive policies to foster equitable resilience. It emphasises the need for urban resilience planning to move beyond infrastructure-centric models and adopt a rights-based and justice-oriented approach.

High Emissions, Excessive Consumption: The Contribution of Developed Economies

The Industrial Revolution began a period of intensive fossil fuel usage, primarily in Western Europe and North America. Over the next two centuries, these continents emitted the majority of the cumulative CO₂ emissions. Between 1850 and 2021, the US alone contributed approximately a quarter of the cumulative global CO₂ emissions, while the European Union (EU) was responsible for approximately 17 percent, China (the current largest annual emitter), accounted for only 13 percent, and India—despite its large population and rapid development—contributed just 3 percent (1) (2). Historical emissions are critical because CO₂ remains in the atmosphere for centuries, affecting the climate long after it is released. This permanence creates a finite ‘carbon budget’—the amount of CO₂ humanity can emit before breaching the critical thresholds of 1.5°C or 2°C of global warming, as established by the Paris Agreement (3). Developed economies have consumed most of this budget, leaving developing nations with limited room for emissions-intensive growth.

Despite constituting less than 20 percent of the global population, developed economies consume more than 60 percent of the world’s natural resources (4). Driven by capitalist growth models that encourage consumerism and expansion over sustainability, these economies are characterised by high energy use, material consumption, and waste generation. The per capita emissions data underscore this pattern. In 2022, each US citizen emitted approximately 14.4 tons of CO₂, as against 1.9 tons in India and less than 0.5 tons in many African nations (5). The developed world also generates disproportionate amounts of plastic and e-waste, much of which ends up in the Global South (6).

Moreover, multinational corporations in the Global North externalise ecological damage by often offshoring polluting industries to the Global South, benefiting from their prevalent lax environmental regulations. These corporations and consumers then demand green products and carbon neutrality by brushing aside their embedded emissions in global supply chains (7).

The Unequal Impacts of Climate Change

Developing economies are disproportionately vulnerable to climate-induced disasters despite their minimal role in causing them. For instance, although India has contributed only about 3 percent to cumulative historical CO₂ emissions between 1850 and 2021 (8), it faces devastating floods, heatwaves, and cyclones with increasing intensity and frequency, displacing millions, and undermining development gains. Similarly, Mozambique, the Philippines, and many Pacific Island nations face increasing climate disasters, such as cyclones, rising oceans, and freshwater salinisation, making them some of the most affected nations globally (9). Such vulnerabilities arise from geographic, socioeconomic, and infrastructural factors.

Marginalised communities in developing countries, including people with disabilities (PwDs), women, and low-income groups, are the worst affected by climate disasters. Often residing in hazard-prone floodplains, coastal regions or urban informal settlements, these communities have poor access to essential services such as healthcare, sanitation, and early warning systems, making these communities significantly more vulnerable to climate impacts (10). Their economic constraints limit their capacity to recover from shocks or invest in resilience-building measures, perpetuating cycles of poverty and vulnerability. Systemic inequities in resource access, policy exclusion, and structural discrimination amplify these vulnerabilities.  

Persons with Disabilities: PwDs face two to four times higher mortality risks during disasters due to inaccessible infrastructure and emergency services. For example, 75 percent of PwDs in Mozambique could not evacuate during the 2019 Cyclone Idai due to inadequate warnings (11) (12). In 2022, Madagascar experienced a severe famine exacerbated by climate change. PwDs were hit hardest, as they found it challenging to access help and support (13). Women with disabilities in Bangladesh face heightened risks of violence and exclusion in disaster shelters, with climate displacement increasing their vulnerability to abuse and insecurity (14). Additionally, PwDs are up to four times more likely to die in climate-related disasters compared to non-disabled individuals, as mobility limitations, reliance on assistive devices, and social isolation increase their vulnerabilities (15).

Climate change exacerbates health risks for PwDs. Heatwaves can be particularly dangerous for individuals with specific disabilities, such as multiple sclerosis, who are more susceptible to heat-related illnesses (16). Additionally, disruptions to medical services during extreme weather events can hinder access to essential care and medications.

Emergency response systems also frequently fail to accommodate the needs of PwDs. Only 35 of the 192 countries party to the Paris Agreement mentioned PwDs in their climate commitments. Moreover, only 45 countries included them in their national adaptation policies (17). This exclusion results in inaccessible evacuation procedures and shelters, leaving PwDs at greater risk during emergencies.

PwDs also often face socioeconomic challenges, including higher rates of poverty and unemployment. These factors limit their ability to adapt to climate change, such as relocating from high-risk areas or investing in resilient infrastructure. For instance, in Uzbekistan, a study found that PwDs are largely excluded from social and political life, worsening their vulnerability to climate impacts (18).

Women: Women in the Global South spend about eight hours daily collecting water and fuel, a task made harder during droughts. For instance, during Chennai’s water crisis in 2019, women in impoverished areas lost work and income, girls missed school, and many faced health issues and hardships due to additional hours spent fetching water (19). Between 2020 and 2024, climate change doubled the average number of pregnancy heat-risk days in 222 countries, with the most significant increases in developing regions with limited healthcare, highlighting the disproportionate burden faced by climate-vulnerable, low-emission countries (20).

Despite constituting nearly 50 percent of agricultural workers, women remain underrepresented in climate policy leadership roles, often holding less than one-third of decision-making positions (21). A severe heatwave impacting South and Southeast Asia caused significant distress, with women experiencing increased domestic violence, pregnancy complications, and poorer living conditions (22) (23). Studies show increased poverty and child marriages in Bangladesh during heatwaves and widened rural income gaps, disproportionately affecting women farmers (24). Evidence from the aftermath of the 2008 Cyclone Nargis in Myanmar and the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami indicates that women accounted for a disproportionate share of the casualties due to restricted mobility, caregiving responsibilities, lack of access to early warnings, and entrenched gender norms.

Additionally, poor infrastructures create obstacles to the accessibility and dignity of women and girls with disabilities. For example, shared toilets often lack privacy, adequate lighting, or locking mechanisms, making them unsafe, especially at night. Many girls with mobility impairments cannot access sanitation facilities at all due to the lack of assistive devices like wheelchairs (25).

During and after disasters, women with disabilities are often the last to receive relief supplies or medical care. Some report experiencing mental and physical abuse in shelters, as well as harassment in relief queues (26).

Climate-induced economic stressors have also contributed to a rise in gender-based violence and early marriages. A 2023 study in Bangladesh revealed a staggering 39 percent increase in child marriages following climate-related disasters (27). Families under financial strain often marry off their daughters as a coping mechanism. Extreme heat and displacement also contribute to increased instances of domestic violence. 

Low-Income Communities: Impoverished communities in Global South countries are highly vulnerable to climate change impacts due to their precarious locations, poor infrastructure, and socioeconomic marginalisation. Often situated on floodplains, coasts, or steep slopes, these informal settlements are frequently exposed to floods, heatwaves, landslides, and cyclones (28). Substandard housing materials and unregulated layouts leave them prone to structural collapse during cyclones and fires from short-circuiting. Their health risks escalate during climate events, as poor drainage causes disease outbreaks and heatwaves strain poorly ventilated housing. Case studies in Surat (India), Manila (the Philippines), and Dhaka (Bangladesh) highlight the compounded threats from tidal surges, urban heat islands, and stormwater overflow, which disproportionately impact marginalised communities (29). 

Informal Workers: Many marginalised populations relying on climate-sensitive livelihoods, such as agriculture, street vending, and daily wage jobs, are most affected by climate change. For example, flooding in Dhaka has repeatedly displaced impoverished communities, causing income loss and increased health costs (30). Additionally, their exclusion from urban planning and climate policies means limited access to adaptation resources or early warning systems. Smallholder farmers, particularly women, often lack access to climate-resilient technologies and financial resources (31), reducing their ability to prepare for and recover from climatic shocks.

Climate Finance Gaps

Gaps in climate finance amplify the impediments to climate justice. In 2009, developed countries pledged US$100 billion annually to support climate mitigation and adaptation in developing countries by 2020. However, these countries raised US$115.9 billion under the pledge only in 2022 (32). Over half of the this climate finance to the most disadvantaged countries is in the form of loans rather than grants, exacerbating debt burdens in developing countries. Some countries, such as France, provide up to 92 percent of their climate finance as loans (33). Moreover, about 70 percent of these funds were directed toward mitigation projects, while adaptation—often more urgent for climate-vulnerable countries—received far less (34).

The need to compensate countries for irreversible climate impacts culminated in a formal agreement on a dedicated loss and damage fund at COP27 in Egypt in 2022. Yet, its implementation, funding mechanisms, and governance remain uncertain (35).

Moreover, marginalised groups, including women, PwDs, and low-income communities, face systemic exclusion from climate finance despite bearing the brunt of climate impacts (36). Over 16 percent of the global population lives with disabilities, 80 percent of whom reside in developing countries, yet only 1 percent of climate finance targets disability-inclusive projects (37). Similarly, 58 percent of adults in climate-vulnerable economies lack financial resilience, compared to 25 percent in less vulnerable regions (38). These disparities stem from structural inequities in funding allocation, inaccessible policies, and a lack of participatory decision-making.

Climate Colonialism and Structural Inequality

The concept of climate colonialism, also referred to as carbon colonialism, highlights how developed nations continue to dominate the global climate agenda, often at the expense of equity and justice. After centuries of emissions, developed economies now impose restrictions on the emissions of developing economies through trade, aid, and finance mechanisms (39). The Global North also controls most green technologies, like solar panels and batteries, making it hard for countries in the Global South to access them (40). Even though many developing economies have the natural resources needed for clean energy, they lack the money and infrastructure to exploit them fully. In climate meetings, wealthy nations dominate the discussions while overlooking the voices of indigenous peoples, island nations, and youth from the Global South (41). This means that climate policies may not adequately address the real needs.

The Path Towards Climate Justice

Addressing these inequities requires a justice-based approach to climate policy that centres on historical responsibility, equitable finance, inclusive governance, and systemic economic transformation. Despite many climate policies worldwide, significant gaps persist in both coverage and effectiveness—particularly for the marginalised and climate-vulnerable groups. Many policy frameworks lack disaggregated data, inclusive participation, and targeted finance, resulting in the continued exclusion of PwDs, women, and low-income communities from adaptation benefits. Moreover, the Global South faces structural disadvantages in accessing climate finance and shaping policy agendas, perpetuating climate colonialism and inequity (42). Bridging these gaps requires targeted, justice-oriented interventions that address exclusion, poverty, gender, financial imbalances, and structural inequalities.

The disproportionate impact of disasters on marginalised communities can be addressed through the following inclusive policies:

Gender-Sensitive Disaster Management: There is an urgent need for gender-inclusive policies that recognise the unique needs and strengths of all genders. Gender mainstreaming must be central to all climate policies and empower women in decision-making roles (43). For example, Bhutan has created Gender Focal Points in various ministries to coordinate gender equality and climate change initiatives (44).

Promote Women’s Leadership: Reserve 30 percent of COP leadership roles for Global South representatives and encourage women’s participation in decision-making processes to enhance the effectiveness of disaster management strategies. For instance, UN Women assists Bangladesh in adopting gender-sensitive policy measures to mitigate women’s vulnerabilities to climate change (45).

Disability-Inclusive Climate Policies and Infrastructure: By adopting inclusive practices and ensuring the participation of PwDs in decision-making processes, societies can build resilience and promote equity in the face of climate change. To address the needs of PWDs, urban planners must implement universal design principles to make infrastructure accessible to all. This includes features such as ramps, tactile paving, and accessible public transportation. Emergency preparedness plans must consider the enhanced vulnerabilities of PwDs. This includes developing accessible communication methods, such as sign language interpreters and visual alerts, and ensuring evacuation procedures are in place to accommodate individuals with disabilities. Community drills that include PwDs can help identify and address potential barriers, and early warning systems that are accessible to them can ensure that all individuals receive timely information during emergencies and are better equipped to respond (46).

Strengthening Local Adaptation Plans: Local adaptation plans of action (LAPAs) involve community members in identifying climate risks and developing adaptation strategies. For instance, Nepal’s LAPA process includes the participation of women and marginalised groups in identifying and prioritising adaptation measures (47). This also involves training and providing resources for local authorities and communities to enhance their ability to implement effective adaptation measures.

Similarly, upgrading low-income housing is a powerful pathway toward inclusive urban resilience when integrated with climate adaptation and community participation. Improving existing informal settlements with climate-resilient infrastructure, such as raised plinths and improved drainage, can reduce vulnerabilities without displacing communities. Engaging residents in planning and implementing housing solutions ensures that interventions meet local needs and are sustainable.

Rethinking Growth Models: The Global North must rethink its model of endless economic growth and transition towards post-growth or degrowth paradigms that prioritise ecology, equity, and well-being over GDP. While such a transition may be challenging for developed economies, it presents a significant opportunity. For a sustainable and livable future in cities, it is essential to distinguish between the standard of living and quality of life, which is a subjective and objective assessment of one’s living condition and the environment (48). 

Conclusion

Climate change is no longer a future threat—it is a lived reality, particularly for the urban poor and marginalised groups in the Global South. As cities face intensifying climate risks, including floods and heatwaves, the impacts are distributed unevenly. Addressing this requires a multidimensional approach that includes acknowledging historical responsibilities, supporting vulnerable nations, and implementing inclusive policies that prioritise the needs of marginalised communities. Climate justice is inextricably linked to the pursuit of inclusive urban resilience. To ensure that cities do not perpetuate inequalities under the guise of sustainability, policymakers and urban planners must recognise that resilience without justice is neither sustainable nor ethical. Building urban futures that are climate-resilient and socially inclusive demands a paradigm shift from technocratic solutions to transformative justice. Through participatory planning, gender-inclusive governance, gender-sensitive disaster management, climate-proof housing, and community-led upgrading, cities can become more resilient to climate shocks and transition towards a more equitable and resilient future.

Meghna Verma is Head of the Centre for Sustainability and Associate Professor at the Department of Marketing and International Business at the Ramaiah Institute of Management, Bengaluru.

Endnotes

(1) Simon Evans, “Which Countries Are Historically Responsible for Climate Change?,” Carbon Brief, October 05, 2021, https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-which-countries-are-historically-responsible-for-climate-change/

(2) Hannah Ritchie and Max Roser, “CO₂ and Greenhouse Gas Emissions,” Our World in Data, https://ourworldindata.org/co2-and-other-greenhouse-gas-emissions

(3) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis, 2021, https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/

(4) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Decoupling Natural Resource Use and Environmental Impacts from Economic Growth, 2011, https://www.unep.org/resources/report/decoupling-natural-resource-use-and-environmental-impacts-economic-growth

(5) Our World in Data, “CO₂ and Greenhouse Gas Emissions”

(6) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Emissions Gap Report 2023, 2023, https://www.unep.org/resources/emissions-gap-report-2023

(7) Aurélien Saussay and Natalia Zugravu-Soilita, “International production chains and the pollution offshoring hypothesis: An empirical investigation,” Resource and Energy Economics, 73 (2023), https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S092876552300012X

(8) “Which Countries Are Historically Responsible for Climate Change?”

(9) United Nations Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR), Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction, 2022, https://www.undrr.org/gar2022

(10) UN-Habitat, World Cities Report 2020: The Value of Sustainable Urbanization, United Nations Human Settlements Programme, 2020, https://unhabitat.org/sites/default/files/2020/10/wcr_2020_report.pdf

(11) Claire Williamson, Caitlin McCordic and Brent Doberstein, “The Compounding Impacts of Cyclone Idai and Their Implications for Urban Inequality,” International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 86 (2023): 103526, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2023.103526

(12) CBM Global Disability Inclusion, Annual Report 2022, CBM Global, 2022, https://cbm-global.org/annual-report-2022

(13) Christian Blind Mission, “Madagascar Famine,” https://www.cbmnz.org.nz/activity/madagascar/

(14) Khurshid Alam, Naureen Fatema, and Wahida Ahmed, “Gender, Human Security and Climate Change in Bangladesh,” in Gender, Human Security and Climate Change: Bangladesh Case Study, 7–17, New York: Women’s Environment and Development Organization, 2008, https://wedo.org/wp-content/uploads/bangladesh-case-study.pdf

(15) Laura M. Stough and Ilan Kelman, “People with Disabilities and Disasters,” in Handbook of Disaster Research, ed. Havidán Rodríguez, William Donner and Joseph E. Trainor (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017), 225–242

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10. Carbon Markets and Urban Transitions: Unlocking Climate Finance for Sub-Saharan Africa’s Cities 

Muhammad Hamisu Yadudu and Ruchi Soni

Africa is urbanising at an unprecedented pace. By 2050, the continent’s urban population is expected to more than double, from around 565 million in 2020 to over 1.2 billion (1). Cities are powerful engines of economic growth and innovation. At the same time, they also concentrate climate risks, including floods, heatwaves, water scarcity, and fragile infrastructure, all of which heighten vulnerability to disasters.

To confront this dual reality, urban disaster preparedness must be fully integrated into climate-resilient development strategies, backed by accessible, scalable climate finance.

Carbon markets offer a massive opportunity, not just in terms of climate benefits, but also offer potential for economic and social benefits for the communities. By linking Africa’s rapid urban expansion with climate finance flows, they can unlock funding that supports both low-carbon growth and long-term resilience. Additionally, they can help reduce imports, thereby strengthening the trade balance and currency, and lowering product costs.

This essay draws on Sustainable Energy for All’s (SEforALL) work through the Africa Carbon Markets Initiative (ACMI) and Energy Transition and Investment Plans (ETIPs) to highlight how African economies, as well as other urban centres across the Global South, are pioneering innovative climate finance solutions. It showcases real-world examples of what works, identifies persistent barriers, and offers practical policy and programmatic recommendations to drive progress at scale.

The Case for Urban Climate Finance in Africa

Urban growth in Africa is occurring at an unprecedented speed. The continent is projected to add nearly one billion urban residents by 2050, more than doubling its current urban population (2). Without targeted investments in climate-resilient infrastructure, this expansion could significantly increase exposure to hazards. A 2021 analysis found that by 2050, US$65 billion worth of African urban infrastructure under construction or planned is at high risk of exposure to natural disasters (3).

The Financing Gap

Climate finance flows to Africa increased by 48 percent to reach US$44 billion in 2021-2022, up from US$30 billion in 2019-2020 (4). This increase will cater to only a quarter of what is needed to cover Africa’s collective Nationally Determined Contribution. Africa will require a fourfold increase in climate finance by 2030 to close its adaptation and mitigation financing gap (5).

A key challenge is that over 50 percent of Africa’s climate finance is debt-based, placing a heavy burden on nascent municipal systems (6). Borrowing from capital markets at market rates can carry a 500 percent higher interest burden than concessional alternatives (7). This situation has made diversified financing instruments imperative, particularly to guarantee long-term resilience.

Climate Finance Mechanisms for Urban Green Transitions

Africa’s two key homegrown initiatives—ACMI and the Africa Climate Mobility Initiative (ACMII)—have strengthened the continent’s climate finance mechanisms, enabling countries to better access and structure green financing around mobility, resilience, and market-based mitigation.

Harnessing climate finance to build urban resilience in Africa increasingly relies on three interlinked mechanisms: voluntary and compliance carbon markets, blended finance models, and green financing (for municipal facilities).

Each of these mechanisms has begun to generate a notable impact, as evidenced in recent SEforALL work.

The ACMII was launched in 2021 as a partnership between the African Union Commission, the United Nations (UN), and the World Bank. Its primary aim was to build an evidence base and policy framework to address climate-induced displacement and migration across the continent. As climate shocks increasingly influence urban growth and mobility patterns, ACMII aims to serve as a central guide for city planning and infrastructure investments, particularly in coastal cities and Sahelian corridors that are vulnerable to drought and sea-level rise. By recognising migration as both a risk and an adaptation strategy, the initiative supports climate-resilient infrastructure that can benefit from instruments such as green bonds and multilateral adaptation funds (8).

In parallel, the ACMI was launched at COP27 in November 2022, co-led by the UN Economic Commission for Africa, the Global Energy Alliance for People and Planet, and SEforALL (9). The initiative aims to scale voluntary carbon markets in Africa. As of early 2025, nine African countries, including Nigeria, Kenya, Rwanda, Malawi, and Ghana, have committed to developing various versions of what can serve as national Carbon Market Activation Plans (NCMAPs) (10). These plans attempt to help governments build the legal, institutional, and technical capacity to issue high-integrity credits, particularly in urban sectors such as renewable energy, waste-to-energy, public transportation, and forestry.

Together, these initiatives have enabled early movers to design climate finance ecosystems that leverage carbon markets, green bonds, and concessional capital, thereby facilitating the development of sustainable solutions. For example, Nigeria’s NCMAP has led to the creation of two vital documents, the Nigeria Carbon Market Policy (11) and the Manual of Procedures (12), while Kenya is potentially considering deploying carbon revenues to support e-mobility pilots in Nairobi.

Each of the mechanisms has begun to generate a notable impact, as evidenced in recent SEforALL work.

Voluntary Carbon Markets

Kenya, Ghana, Nigeria, and Rwanda, the four ‘early mover’ countries under ACMI, have developed some variation of NCMAPs, targeting a cumulative US$6 billion in voluntary carbon market (VCM) flows by 2030. NCMAPs aim to scale up to US$100 billion in VCM accruals annually by 2050 (13). They prioritise urban interventions, including green buildings, improved waste management, and the electrification of public transport (e-vehicles).

Nigeria, which launched its NCMAP in March 2025, stands out as a flagship example of early leadership in carbon market development. Nigeria’s NCMAP includes mechanisms that allow subnational actors, including local governments, to generate and monetise carbon credits through climate-smart infrastructure projects. Based on current projections, this framework could enable Nigeria to mobilise between 87.2 and 124.7 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (MtCO₂e) in annual emission reductions by 2030. This potential translates to an estimated annual market value of between US$736 million and US$2.5 billion, depending on credit pricing and market access (14). The resulting revenues are expected to channel tens of millions of dollars back into municipal and local government budgets, supporting reinvestment in sustainable urban development.

On the other hand, Ghana’s NCMAP, launched in partnership with SEforALL and the ACMI platform, aims to position the country as a leading supplier of carbon credits in West Africa. The plan identifies urban waste management and reforestation as near-term high-yield sectors. Notably, the city of Accra is piloting waste-to-energy projects that capture methane from landfills, enabling the issuance of credits under the Verra methodology (15), including combustion via flaring or use for electricity generation. These credits are projected to generate revenues of up to US$45 million annually by 2030 (16). Ghana is also exploring carbon crediting from electric minibus fleets and solar-powered water infrastructure in peri-urban districts, which will further support its decarbonisation agenda while enhancing basic service delivery in expanding cities.

Kenya’s NCMAP outlines a strategic path to leverage VCMs through clean cooking, sustainable cooling, and urban e-mobility. The government’s mobilisation of US$300 million for sustainable cooling has unlocked opportunities to generate international renewable energy certificates and energy efficiency credits, particularly in Nairobi, Mombasa, and Kisumu. These investments aim to reduce emissions from air conditioning, cold storage, and building retrofits, with an estimated annual carbon abatement potential of 12 MtCO₂e. In parallel, Kenya is also developing Paris Agreement’s Article 6 (17)-compliant e-mobility pilot zones where electric buses and two-wheelers will be tracked for carbon credit issuance, backed by Monitoring, Reporting, and Verification (MRV) systems integrated into city transport planning (18).

Rwanda’s NCMAP, too, focuses on nature-based solutions, clean cooking, and sustainable urban mobility. The goal is to spearhead carbon credit generation through the integration of electric motorcycles into its public transit system, targeting a 20 percent reduction by 2030. Additionally, Rwanda has launched a National Clean Cooking Carbon Programme, aiming to reach over two million households and generate up to eight million carbon credits annually (19).

Blended Finance and Public-Private Partnerships

VCMs help unlock viable risk-return profiles that blended finance mechanisms can further leverage to scale urban climate infrastructure. Instruments such as first-loss equity, credit guarantees, and results-based financing have been instrumental in de-risking investment and attracting private capital into frontier projects. For instance, SEforALL’s ETIPs in Nigeria, Ghana, and Kenya catalysed more than US$2.1 billion in clean energy investments between 2021 and 2024 (20). These initiatives combined concessional capital from development finance institutions such as the African Development Bank and the International Finance Corporation, with commercial debt and grant-based subsidies from philanthropic organisations, enabling private developers to scale mini-grids, solar-powered cold chains, and energy-efficient buildings in urban and peri-urban areas. By integrating carbon revenue streams, primarily from creditworthy local government projects, these blended finance structures are becoming increasingly attractive to institutional investors seeking climate-aligned returns.

Green Municipal Bonds and City-Level Finance

An emerging but potent financing tool is green municipal bonds. Cities, including Cape Town in South Africa and Nairobi in Kenya, are exploring green bond issuances explicitly earmarked for urban climate infrastructure, such as flood defences, green public transportation, and climate-smart social housing (21).

Capacity Challenges in Urban Climate Finance

Despite growing momentum, several regulatory, technical, institutional and financial constraints hinder the effective deployment of climate finance in urban Africa:

Regulatory and Policy Gaps

Structural gaps, including the lack of a regulatory blueprint, unclear policies, ambiguous revenue-sharing rules for carbon sales, as well as weak mandates for climate investment, hinder overall private investments in climate action. Creating national carbon plans will help in local finance mandates essential for overcoming these weaknesses and encouraging private sector investments in the cities’ quest for climate resilience.

Technical and Institutional Capacity

Many city governments lack the staffing, skills, and systems required to formulate bankable proposals, execute MRV protocols, or manage credit revenues transparently. For example, a 2022 survey of 15 African municipal governments found that only 20 percent of them had the experience of preparing carbon credit proposals or accessing blended finance instruments (22).

Addressing these shortcomings requires tailored training programmes for officials from several relevant ministries, technical exchanges across cities, and deployment of standard toolkits developed through initiatives like SEforALL’s Global Cooling Plan (23) and ACMI.

Risk Perception and Financing Costs

Municipal climate projects in emerging economies often face elevated perceived risks from investors and financiers. These risks range from weak credit ratings to inconsistent budget execution, contributing to higher financing costs and limited access to long-term capital. Overreliance on donor grants or public subsidies can exacerbate these risks, leading to delays or underfunding in the deployment of climate infrastructure.

For instance, in Freetown, Sierra Leone, municipal plans to scale green stormwater infrastructure have stalled due to limited subnational borrowing authority and high transaction costs associated with project preparation (24). While development partners expressed interest, uncertainty around revenue recovery mechanisms and a lack of credit enhancement tools prevented the project from reaching financial closure.

These examples underscore the importance of risk mitigation instruments, such as blended finance, revenue guarantees, and carbon-backed credit, in unlocking private capital for city-level climate resilience.

Policy and Programmatic Recommendations

Based on these findings, the path to scalable urban climate finance in Africa and other developing regions requires coordinated action across four dimensions:

- Strengthening Regulatory and Institutional Coherence: Policymakers need to align national frameworks, municipal bylaws, revenue management systems, and public procurement rules with urban climate ambition.

- Integrating Carbon Markets with City-Level Infrastructure Planning: Embedding carbon crediting systems into urban planning cycles, ensuring the construction of bus rapid transit, district retrofits, and distributed solar projects with well-defined MRV frameworks. National carbon frameworks should establish subnational modalities.

- Scaling Blended Finance Vehicles: Designing and institutionalising funds earmarked for urban resilience, leveraging concessional capital. Fund design should incorporate results-based triggers and credit enhancement tools to attract private sector partners, reduce debt costs, and spread risk across portfolios of urban assets.

- Build Financing and MRV Capacity at Scale: It is imperative to implement standardised capacity-building and technical assistance programmes across municipal governments, covering project preparation, MRV, registry development, and carbon sales.

- Operationalise Green Municipal Bonds: Support cities to access capital markets by underwriting bond readiness programmes with legal, regulatory, and credit advisory services. Embed carbon credit verification into bond structures to create coupon performance adjustments and improve yield-spread profile for investors.

- Rationalising Pricing: Historically, carbon prices in Africa have remained significantly below global averages, potentially limiting their viability as a tool for mobilising climate finance, particularly at the subnational level.

Consequently, African credits often receive lower prices than credits from other regions due to perceived market risks, limited visibility, and underdeveloped verification systems.

To address this, African cities can enhance price competitiveness by improving the integrity, traceability, and visibility of co-benefits associated with their credits. The ACMI encourages countries to adopt NCMAPs that include rigorous MRV systems, project developer training, and digital registries that align with international standards, such as Verra methodology, the Gold Standard (25), and the Paris Agreement’s Article 6.

Cities can also bundle credits from multiple municipal projects (for example, waste-to-energy, green transport, or clean cooking) into aggregated portfolios that meet the demand for high-impact, scalable mitigation outcomes. This aggregation, combined with the certification of co-benefits (for example, jobs, health outcomes, urban resilience), can help de-risk credits and justify premium pricing. ACMI’s work with early-mover countries, including Kenya, Nigeria, and Ghana, demonstrates how cities can enhance credit quality and visibility by collaborating with national carbon platforms and global buyers.

Conclusion

Africa’s cities stand at a pivotal moment. Climate risks threaten to reverse hard-won development gains, but urban centres also hold the most significant promise for bold, green, and resilient growth. With the right financing and institutional capacity, cities can lead the way.

SEforALL’s work through the ACMI and ETIP proves that urban climate action can deliver triple dividends: lower emissions, more resilient services, and increased financial flows into city systems.

To reach the scale that is needed, countries must adopt national carbon frameworks that empower subnational actors, design city-specific blended finance tools, and invest in strong, local capacity. These efforts should align with bond markets linked to environmental performance.

This integrated approach can transform Africa’s urban future, making its cities examples of climate resilience and low-carbon development across the Global South.

Muhammad Hamisu Yadudu is a Climate Expert at the United Nations Office for Project Services.

Ruchi Soni is a Principal Specialist at SEforALL.

The views are of the authors.

Endnotes

(1) United Nations, World Urbanization Prospects, New York, United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2018, https://population.un.org/wup/assets/WUP2018-Report.pdf

(2) Africa Center for Strategic Studies, Africa’s Unprecedented Urbanization is Shifting the Security Landscape, Washington DC, 2025, https://africacenter.org/spotlight/africa-urban-growth-security/

(3) OECD, Africa’s Urbanisation Dynamics 2025: Planning for Urban Expansion, Paris, OECD Publishing, 2025, https://doi.org/10.1787/2a47845c-en

(4) Climate Policy Initiative, Landscape of Climate Finance in Africa 2024, Cape Town, 2025, https://www.climatepolicyinitiative.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Landscape-of-Climate-Finance-in-Africa-2024.pdf

(5) UNICEF, Financing the Climate Future: Unlocking Finance for Young Climate Innovators, New York, UNICEF Office of Innovation, 2024, https://www.unicef.org/innovation/stories/financing-climate-future

(6) “Landscape of Climate Finance in Africa 2024” (see 4)

(7) “The collateral damage of rising interest rates,” One Data, August 30, 2023, https://data.one.org/analysis/the-hidden-impacts-of-rising-interest-rates

(8) Kamal Amakrane et al., African Shifts: The Africa Climate Mobility Report, Addressing Climate-Forced Migration & Displacement, New York, Africa Climate Mobility Initiative and Global Centre for Climate Mobility, 2023, https://africa.climatemobility.org/report

(9) Sustainable Energy for All (SEforALL), Africa Carbon Markets Initiative (ACMI): Scaling Voluntary Carbon Markets Across Africa, Vienna, 2022, https://www.seforall.org/our-work/initiatives-projects/ACMI

(10) Jessica Omukuti, Hope Njoroge, Jose Maria Valenzuela, Javier Lezaun, and Yusuf Olalere, Making Carbon Markets Work for Africa: A 7-Point Plan, Oxford, Oxford Net Zero, 2024, https://netzeroclimate.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Making-carbon-markets-work-for-Africa-Nov-2024.pdf

(11) Kanchan Yadav, “Nigeria finalizes carbon market policy, targets $2.5 bln in climate investment by 2030,” FastMarkets, May 2, 2025, https://www.fastmarkets.com/insights/nigeria-finalizes-carbon-market-policy-targets-2-5-bln-in-climate-investment-by-2030/

(12) Ibrahim A. Shelleng, “How climate finance can accelerate development in Nigeria,” Premium Times, January 1, 2025, https://www.premiumtimesng.com/opinion/764345-how-climate-finance-can-accelerate-development-in-nigeria-by-ibrahim-a-shelleng.html

(13) Sustainable Energy for All (SEforALL), Africa Carbon Markets Initiative: Roadmap Report 2022, Vienna, 2022, https://www.seforall.org/system/files/2022-11/acmi_roadmap_report_2022.pdf

(14) Federal Government of Nigeria, Nigeria Carbon Market Activation Plan (NCMAP), 2024, https://drive.google.com/file/d/1i9RW3A1klXd-tX1bLFCGzaLVj2YR3oYM/view

(15) The Verra methodology is a standardised protocol under the Verified Carbon Standard , allowing project developers to quantify and certify emissions reductions from landfill methane capture and destruction.

(16) Sustainable Energy for All (SEforALL) and Africa Carbon Markets Initiative, Ghana Carbon Market Activation Plan, Africa Carbon Markets Initiative Country Series, 2023, https://www.seforall.org/publications/ghana-carbon-market-activation-plan

(17) Article 6 of the Paris Agreement outlines the rules for international cooperation on climate action, specifically focusing on carbon markets and non-market approaches to help countries achieve their nationally determined contributions.

(18) International Climate Initiative (IKI), Kenya’s Electric Motorcycle Pilot Project, Berlin, 2023, https://sustmob.org/EMOB/pdf/230928_BMU-IKI_KenyaProjectBrief_Final.pdf

(19) Michel Nkurunziza, “Govt Subsidizes Clean Cooking Technologies to Safeguard Forests,” The New Times, November 20, 2023, https://www.newtimes.co.rw/article/12465/news/energy/govt-subsidizes-clean-cooking-technologies-to-safeguard-forests

(20) Sustainable Energy for All (SEforALL), Annual Monitoring & Review Report 2023/2024, Vienna, 2024, https://www.seforall.org/system/files/2024-10/SEforALL-annual-monitoring-review-full.pdf

(21) Daniel Sullivan, “City of Cape Town Green Bond Issuance” (presentation, United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR), November 10, 2020), https://www.undrr.org/media/48285/download?startDownload=20250724; Nairobi Securities Exchange (NSE), Green Bonds: A Guide for Issuers, Nairobi, 2019, https://www.nse.co.ke/wp-content/uploads/green-bonds-guide-14.08.19-2.pdf

(22) “Africa Carbon Markets Initiative: Roadmap Report 2022” (see 13)

(23) Sustainable Energy for All (SEforALL), Cooling for All, https://www.seforall.org/programmes/cooling-for-all

(24) Astrid RN Haas and Gundula Löffler, Municipal Finance: Crosscutting Report, London, African Cities Research Consortium Working Paper No. 28, Manchester, 2025, https://www.african-cities.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/ACRC_Working-Paper-28_March-2025.pdf

(25) The Gold Standard is a globally accepted certification and standard-setting body in climate finance, particularly within the voluntary carbon market.