Research shows that half of civil wars recur within 5 years, locking countries into a conflict trap. Since the 1980s, disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) programs have been included in peace agreements and become integral to the international community's efforts to prevent conflict recurrence. Despite knowledge of DDR's prevalence in peace agreements, we still know relatively little about how the content of DDR provisions varies across settlements. This article presents a systematic comparison of the content of 78 full DDR provisions included in 292 peace agreements concluded between 1975 and 2021. I code 12 variables pertaining to the content of DDR provisions and group them into four categories: inclusivity, robustness, precision, and coercion. I find great variety in the scope and depth of DDR provisions: Most notably, only 78 (26%) out of 292 agreements contain all three components of DDR programs; women and minors affiliated with armed groups are only mentioned in 11% and 25% of DDR provisions respectively; third parties are involved in 62% of DDR provisions; and the establishment of national DDR commissions is included in 55% of DDR provisions.
Policy implications
- Explore the role of language in DDR negotiations:
- To overcome sensitivities around terms like “disarmament” or “reintegration,” which may imply surrender or stigma for certain groups, mediators should draw on examples of alternative terminology (e.g., “laying down of arms” or “reincorporation”). Adopting context-sensitive language can help foster greater buy-in from conflict parties.
- Strengthen the role of civil society in DDR monitoring and implementation:
- To address gaps in local ownership of DDR, future peace agreements should include provisions for civil society capacity building and involvement in DDR. Civil society actors can play a key role in monitoring compliance, mediating disputes, and fostering community acceptance of ex-combatants.
- Support data collection on DDR negotiations, provisions, and implementation:
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A persistent challenge in evaluating DDR programs is the lack of systematic data on how they were negotiated and implemented. Donors and international organizations should fund longitudinal studies to track the outcomes of DDR provisions.
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Photo by Tima Miroshnichenko