Book Review - Global Justice and the Biodiversity Crisis: Conservation in a World of Inequality
Global Justice and the Biodiversity Crisis: Conservation in a World of Inequality by Chris Armstrong. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2024. 176 pp., £31.49 hardcover 9780198853596
In a time of ecological crisis and rising global inequality, questions about how we protect nature and for whom are more pressing than ever. As someone who has long engaged in these discussions, Chris Armstrong’s recent book Global Justice and the Biodiversity Crisis: Conservation in a World of Inequality is important not only in terms of questioning biodiversity conservation approaches but also combining this with global justice. In this book, Armstrong offers a strong argument that biodiversity conservation can’t be extracted from questions of power, justice and historical responsibilities. Making use of political philosophy, conservation studies and policy-based discussions, the author delivers an interesting perspective and urgent critique of conventional approaches to conservation and invites us to reimagine more just and inclusive alternatives. Strongly weaving together empirical examples, normative frameworks and philosophical arguments, the book intends to rethink conservation not only as an ecological imperative but also as an issue of global justice.
The first of six chapters explains why biodiversity conservation raises very important questions about global justice. Armstrong argues that global inequality drives biodiversity loss and this causes global injustice, and that responses to biodiversity loss will yield further global injustice, unless formulated carefully with clear normative guidance. As the Global South is where ‘the most biodiversity can be found’ and at the same time where the highest level of destruction happens, this is linked to the ‘unsustainable lifestyles’ of high consumption in the global North (p, 16). Thus, Armstrong explains that the biodiversity crisis needs to play a more crucial role within discussions on global justice. In addition to this, he discusses several prominent theories, including hierarchical and egalitarian theories, and Nussbaum’s capability theory of justice towards non-human animals (p, 27).
In Chapter 2, referring to his study from 2017, Armstrong explains different types of conservation activity as avoidance, protection and restoration (p, 31).He also clarifies the relationship between biodiversity conservation and other environmentalist goals with which it is sometimes conflated. Armstrong asserts that even though some environmental scholars’ works are useful and highlight some of the empirical complexities about the importance of conserving biodiversity, they fail to completely show the negative consequences of biodiversity loss (p, 33). Throughout this chapter, Armstrong focusses on the question of why we are obligated to support conservation policies, while also arguing that non-human animals possess rights of their own.
In Chapter 3, the author discusses the unjust distribution of conservation responsibilities across countries and regions. ‘Half Earth’ proposals and the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework show the international commitment to biodiversity targets; however, for Armstrong these conservation efforts often stand disproportionately as a burden on poorer nations and vulnerable populations (p, 51). Despite hosting most of the world’s biodiversity, lower/middle income countries only receive a small portion of global conservation funds. In this regard, the author argues that this effectively allows high income countries, whose consumption and ecological demands are one of the main drivers of environmental degradation, to freeload on the sacrifices of the South, while this structural inequity undermines justice. This chapter strongly makes not only a political but also a moral case for rethinking how conservation burdens should be allocated based on contribution and capacity, and how neglect of this in the global North is a collective loss (p, 67).
Chapter 4 examines the conventional methods used to calculate the opportunity costs of conservation projects. With typical framing in economic terms, the standard approach presumes a morally neutral baseline where the negatives are all weighed up against what people would have obtained if conservation had not occurred. The author strongly challenges this point of view while positing that these calculations must stand on a ‘moralized’ baseline (p, 70). With the use of examples ranging from exploitative labor systems to environmentally detrimental but profitable practices, Armstrong shows that using unfair and harmful practices will inevitably lead to inequality. This point of view shows that conservation shouldn’t come at the expense of further marginalization of the poor or disregarding non-material cultural and health related losses. Analyzing opportunity costs through a justice-oriented lens, this chapter urges the adoption of fairer steps by policymakers and more inclusive approaches to biodiversity protection (p, 85).
Armstrong questions the growing practice of biodiversity offsetting in relation to global justice in Chapter 5. Under the assumption of acquiring ‘no net loss’, offsetting allows us to compensate for biodiversity loss in one place while restoring or preserving biodiversity in another area (p, 85). This chapter raises important ethical concerns related to the usage of this policy tool in both global North and South, which is driven by institutions such as the World Bank, The Convention on Biological Diversity etc. The author states that even though these offsets are generally justified with reference to economic efficiency and ecological equivalence, in practice they regularly bypass the mitigation hierarchy and treat destruction as a first rather than last. In addition to this, Armstrong adds that offsetting schemes can obscure deeper injustices with externalizing environmental destruction into more vulnerable areas and populations. Highlighting the specific ethical risks involved in biodiversity trade-offs, the author notably questions whether offsetting really does advance rather than undermine equal and sustainable conservation or vice versa. Armstrong ends the chapter with a warning on the related question: unless carefully regulated and deeply rethought, biodiversity offsetting may be doing more harm than good – as he argues that offsetting is not well understood (pp, 107-108).
In Chapter 6, Armstrong explores one of the most ambitious conservation views that proposes to set aside half of the Earth’s land and sea for nature. Referring to a wide range of policy proposals including the Global Deal for Nature, Nature Needs Half, and Half Earth, the author carefully assesses both the potential positives and complexities of this target. It’s obvious that protecting half of the earth’s surface might be helpful to prevent biodiversity loss, preserving ecosystem functions, as well as averting species extinction. However, the author highlights that achieving this level of conservation raises undeniable ethical and political questions. Armstrong also identifies six key features of the Half Earth model, underscoring its applicability in subtropical and tropical areas where biodiversity is most dense. He also notes the model’s focus on both marine and terrestrial ecosystems and its potential impact on global biodiversity governance, particularly considering targets set by the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. Armstrong’s positioning of Half Earth within a range of debates about change and justice, importantly opens a necessary discussion about what ambitious conservation should look like.
In conclusion, Armstrong’s book through its well written and thought-provoking style, impressively examines key proposals and ethical questions on biodiversity conservation. It urges a reimagining of conservation based on equity, epistemic inclusion and structural change that addresses the root causes of biodiversity destruction, including inequality, poverty and unsustainable consumption. The author’s call for a strong global justice framework emphasizes that saving the earth should not come at the expense of enhancing existing injustices. This book would be a helpful source for scholars, practitioners and policymakers to move beyond technocratic solutions and embrace an approach that centers on equity, inclusion and moral responsibility. Its timely contribution deserves serious attention from anyone who is concerned about the future of the globe and the fair distribution of its burdens and benefits.
Ramiz Abbaszada is a PhD Candidate in Political Science, at the School of International and Public Affairs, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China. Email: ramizabbaszade@sjtu.edu.cn ORCID: http://orcid.org/0009-0009-0764-7804
